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. Principles of Private Transnational Commercial Law




6. From time immemorial, international trade has mainly been carried out by private merchants and has given rise to uniform commercial usages, principles, and rules for the allocation of commercial risks concerning the sale, carriage, insurance, delivery, and payment of goods. As sellers and buyers reside in different countries, they often avail themselves of generally recognized legal principles - such as freedom of contract, -> good faith (bona fide), -> pacta sunt servanda, use of commercial customs and corporations (-> Corporations in International Law) with separate legal personality, commercial arbitration, and recognition of commercial arbitral awards (-> Commercial Arbitration, International) - so as to apply customary commercial and contract practices rather than submit their contracts exclusively to the domestic laws and courts of one party to the possible disadvantage of the foreign party. Since the medieval law merchant, coantract practices for the export and import of goods, related payments, and commercial arbitration exhibit a high degree of uniformity and were increasingly recognized as optional rules in domestic laws and commercial agreements, eg establishing the Hanseatic League among over 70 cities.

7. The medieval -> lex mercatoria had not only been a ius mercatorum but also a customary law approved by governmental authorities. With the advent of mercantilism and -> colonialism, this law merchant became increasingly influenced by government interventions, eg granting trade monopolies and privileges for the English, Dutch, and French East India Companies, and by national codifications of commercial laws, such as Colbert's Ordonnance sur le commerce of 1673 and the Grande Ordonnance sur la marine of 1681 in France. In England, the law merchant continued to be recognized as a universal body of law separate from common law and equity until 1756 when, under Lord Mansfield CJ of the Kings Bench and specially created juries of merchants, the customary merchant and maritime law was recognized as an integral part of English common law.

The successive codifications of commercial laws (eg the French Code de commerce of 1807, the German Allgemeines Deutsches Handelsgesetzbuch of 1861, and the English Sale of Goods Act of 1893) regulated commercial transactions as part of civil law. Modern private transnational commercial law is increasingly influenced by public and private international organizations, such as the -> United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) and the -> International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), which elaborate international conventions, standard contracts, and model laws, and codify commercial usages. The principles of transnational law are founded on the principle of the autonomy of the parties will and its recognition as optional law in national legal systems; they substitute national conflict of law rules aimed at 'nationalizing' disputeseg by localising the 'seat of the obligation' and consigning the case to one municipal law - by uniform substantive principles of commcrcial law and arbitration which, while dependent on State authority for enforcement purposes, aim at limiting State control over transnational business, eg by private arbitration clauses based on UNCITRALs 1985 Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration, in order to reduce transaction costs. Ihe interrelationships between private and public, national and international principles of trade law are Illustrated by the WTO Agreement on Pre-Shipment Inspection ([signed 15 April 1994, entered into force I January 1995] 1868 UNTS 368), whose 'independent review procedures' (Art. 4) offer private parties direct access to commercial arbitration in the WTO.

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