- , ( ) ; () n, n = 1÷6. () n -; n > 2 -, , ()3 (), ()4 ()6 2()2. : .
, . -, , H2SO4, HNO3 H2CO3, SO2(OH)2, NO2(OH) CO(OH)2. , . , . : . ( , ):
| HAsO2 | AsO2- |
| H3AsO3 | AsO33- |
| H3AsO4 | AsO43- |
| 47 2- | |
| i33- | |
| HBrO | BrO- |
| HBrO3 | BrO3- |
| H2CO3 | CO32- |
| HClO | ClO- |
| HClO2 | ClO2- |
| HClO3 | ClO3- |
| HClO4 | ClO4- |
| H2CrO4 | CrO42- |
| CrO4- | |
| H2Cr27 | Cr2O72- |
| FeO42- | |
| HIO3 | IO3- |
| HIO4 | IO4- |
| H5IO6 | IO65- |
| HMnO4 | MnO4- |
| H2MnO4 | MnO42- |
| H2MO4 | MO42- |
| HNO2 | NO2- |
| HNO3 | NO3- |
| HPO3 | PO3- |
| H3PO4 | PO43- |
| PO42- | |
| 2PO4- | |
| H4P2O7 | P2O7 -4 |
| ReO4 | ReO4- |
| H2SO3 | SO32- |
| HSO3- | |
| H2SO4 | SO42- |
| SO4- | |
| H2S2O7 | S2O72- |
| H2S2O6(O2) | S2O6(O2)2- |
| H2SO3S | SO3S2- |
| H2SeO3 | SeO32- |
| H2SeO4 | SeO42- |
| H2SiO3 | SiO32- |
| H4SiO4 | SiO44- |
| H2TeO3 | TeO32- |
| H2TeO4 | TeO42- |
| H6TeO6 | TeO66- |
| VO3 | VO3- |
| H3VO4 | VO43- |
| H2WO4 | WO42- |
.
|
|
|
- , . ( : - , H+).
1. : .
2. , : -, -, .
:
| , | |
| HCl - (), | , Cl- |
| HBr , | , Br- |
| HI , | , I- |
| HF - (), | , F- |
| H2S - , | , S2- |
1. ( ):
SO3 + H2O = H2SO4
P2O5 + 3H2O = 2H3PO4
2. ( ):
H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl
H2 + S = H2S
3.
Ba(NO3)2 + H2SO4 = BaSO4↓+ 2HNO3
, , :
Na2SiO3 + 2HCl = H2SiO3↓+ 2NaCl
2NaCl(.) + H2SO4(.) = Na2SO4 + 2HCl↑
1. .
-
-
2. ( ):
H2SO4 + 2KOH = K2SO4 + 2H2O
2HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 = Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O
3. :
CuO + 2HNO3 = Cu(NO3)2 + H2O
4. (, , -):
Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl2 + H2
2Al + 6HCl = 2AlCl3 + 3H2
, , ( ), , +5 +4 (-3) . , :
Zn + 4HNO3(.) = Zn(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O
5Mg + 12HNO3(.) = 5Mg(NO3)2 + N2 + 6H2O
4Mg + 10HNO3( .) = 4Mg(NO3)2 + NH4NO3 + 3H2O
( ) , , , . HNO3 NO2, NO:
S + 6HNO3(.) = H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O
P + 5HNO3(.) = H3PO4 + 5NO2 + H2O
C + 4HNO3(.) = CO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O
3P + 5HNO3(.) + 2H2O = 3H3PO4 + 5NO
I2 + 10HNO3(.) = 2HIO3 + 10NO2 + 4H2O
, , .
Zn + H2SO4(.) = ZnSO4 + 2
, , ( Au, Pt), . :
|
|
|
8Na +5H2SO4() = 4Na2SO4 + 4H2O + H2S
3Zn + 4H2SO4() = 3ZnSO4 + S
5. ( ), :
H2SO4 + BaCl2 = BaSO4 +2HCl
2HCl + K2CO3 = 2KCl + H2O + CO2
.
(OH-). , NaOH, Mg(OH)2, La (OH)3, Ca (OH)2.
- - , 1. - .
. + . , , (H)2 , La(OH)3 .
, . , Fe()2 a (II), Bi(OH)3 (III). Ha : , . , ()2 , i()3 .
. , NaOH, , NH4OH , Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, (OH)2 , La(OH)3, Bi(OH)3 , Th(OH)4 . .
. ( ), , . .
-, . -; () n, n = 1,2 ( 3,4) n+ . :
| o | , | |
| Na | 1, Na+ - | |
| Mg()2 | 2, Mg2+ , MgOH+ - | |
| (III) | Bi(OH)3 | 3, Bi3+ (III)-, Bi(OH)2+ (III)-, Bi(OH)2+ (III)- |
| (I) | CuOH | 1, Cu+ (I)- |
| (II) | Mn (OH)2 | 2, Mn2+ (II) , MnOH+ (II) |
1. ( ) :
2Na + 2H2O = 2NaOH + H2
Ca + 2H2O = Ca(OH)2 + H2
2. :
BaO + H2O = Ba(OH)2
3.
2NaCl + 2H2O = 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
1. .
-
-
-
2. .
2KOH + CO2 = K2CO3 + H2O
KOH + CO2 = KHCO3
3. ( ) ( ), :
Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 = CaSO4 + 2H2O
Ca(OH)2 + 2H2SO4 = Ca(HSO4)2 + 2H2O
2Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 = Ca2SO4(OH)2 + 2H2O
NaOH + HNO3 = NaNO3 + H2O
Cu(OH)2 + 2HCl = CuCl2 + 2H2O
4.
Ba(OH)2 + K2SO4 = 2KOH + BaSO4 ↓
3KOH+Fe(NO3)3 = Fe(OH)3 ↓+ 3KNO3
5. .
Cu(OH)2 t = CuO + H2O
3.4 ό
y :
| H2SO4 - H2O → SO3 | H2CO3 - H2O → CO2 |
| NaOH - H2O → Na2O | Ca(OH)2 - H2O → CaO |
(H2SO4, H2CO3) (SO3, CO2), (NaOH, Ca(OH)2) (Na2O, CaO), . :
|
|
|
| SO3 | N2 |
| N2O5 | La2O3 (III) |
| P4O10 | ThO2 (IV) |
1.
: :
Na2O + H2O = 2NaOH SO3 + H2O = H2SO4
CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2 P2O5 + 3H2O = 2H3PO4
2. :
MgO + H2SO4 = MgSO4 + H2O CO2 + Ba(OH)2 = BaCO3 + H2O
CuO + 2HCl = CuCl2 + H2O SO2 + 2NaOH = Na2SO3 + H2O
: ZnO + H2SO4 = ZnSO4 + H2O
: ZnO + 2NaOH = Na2ZnO2 + H2O
ZnO + 2NaOH + H2O = Na2[Zn(OH)4]
3. .
Na2O + CO2 = Na2CO3
4. :
3CuO + 2NH3 = 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O
P2O5 + 5C = 2P + 5CO
3.5
, , , :
() 2Al(OH)3 + 3SO3 = Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2O
Al2O3 + 3H2SO4 = Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2O
() 2Al(OH)3 + Na2O = 2NaAlO2 + 3H2O
Al2O3 + 2NaOH = 2NaAlO2 + H2O
, () , .. , Al2(SO4)3, () , .. , (III) NaAlO2. (Al3+), (AlO2). , , :
2Al(OH)3 + 3H2SO4 = [Al(H2O)6]2(SO4)3
Al(OH)3 + NaOH = Na[Al(OH)4]
[Al(H2O)6]3+ - (III), [Al(OH)4] - (III)-. , , , - Be, Al, Ga, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Po ., - Cr, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cd, Au . , , :
| BeO | FeO (II) |
| Al2O3 | Fe2O3 (III) |
| SnO (II) | MnO2 (IV) |
| SnO2 (IV) | ZnO (II) |
( + II) () . :
| Be(OH)2 | |
| Al(OH)3 | () |
| AlO(OH) | |
| TiO(OH)2 | |
| Fe(OH)2 | (II) |
| FeO(OH) |
, , :
| SnO2 . n H2O | (IV) |
| Au2O3 . n H2O | (I) |
| Au2O3 . n H2O | (III) |
, ( , ) -. , , . , , , , . , (II) , [Mn(H2O)6]2+, (VII) , MnO4. , HMnO4 .
|
|
|
, ; (Na, K, Ca, Ba .) (F, O, N, Cl, S, C .) .
- , . .
. : , , , , , . , n + . ( ) n , - . - () -; . :
| Ca3(PO4)2 | |
| Ca(H2PO4)2 | |
| CaHPO4 | |
| CuCO3 | (II) |
| Cu2CO3(OH)2 | - |
| La(NO3)3 | (III) |
| Ti(NO3)2O | - |
. ( NH4+)
Na2SO4 → 2Na+ +SO42-
CaCl2 → Ca2+ + 2Cl-
. (NH4+), .
NaHCO3 → Na+ + HCO3- → Na+ + H+ + CO32-
.
. , .
Zn(OH)Cl → [Zn(OH)]+ + Cl- → Zn2+ + OH- + Cl-
OH .
. .
KAl(SO4)2 → K+ + Al3+ + 2SO42-
. :
CaOCl2 → Ca2+ + Cl- + OCl-
. .
[Ag(NH3)2]Br → [Ag(NH3)2]+ + Br -
Na[Ag(CN)2] → Na+ + [Ag(CN)2]-
. , 34, (NO3)2, NaCl , , .
:
1) :
2Na + Cl2 = 2NaCl
2) :
Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl2 + H2
3)
Fe + CuSO4 = FeSO4 + Cu
4) :
MgO + CO2 = MgCO3
5)
CuO + H2SO4 = CuSO4 + H2O
6)
Ba(OH)2 + CO2 = BaCO3 + H2O
7) :
Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl = CaCl2 + 2H2O
8) :
MgCO3 + 2HCl = MgCl2 + H2O + CO2
BaCl2 + H2SO4 = BaSO4 + 2HCl
9) :
Ba(OH)2 + Na2SO4 = 2NaOH + BaSO4↓
10) :
3CaCl2 + 2Na3PO4 = Ca3(PO4)2↓+ 6NaCl
11) , :
Ca(HSO4)2 + Ca(OH) = CaSO4↓+ 2H2O
(CaOH)2SO4 + H2SO4 = 2CaSO4↓+ 2H2O
1. .
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2
2Cu(NO3)2 = 2CuO + 4NO2 + O2
NH4Cl = NH3 + HCl
2. .
Al2S3 + 6H2O = 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2S
|
|
|
FeCl3 + H2O = Fe(OH)Cl2 + HCl
Na2S + H2O = NaHS +NaOH
3. , .
AgNO3 + HCl = AgCl + HNO3
Fe(NO3)3 + 3NaOH = Fe(OH)3 + 3NaNO3
CaCl2 + Na2SiO3 = CaSiO3 + 2NaCl
4. - , .
2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2MnCl2 + 2KCl + 5Cl2 + 8H2O
, , , , ... , 24, NaHSO4, sHCO3 , , .
1. .
KOH + H2SO4 = KHSO4 + H2O
2.
Ca(OH)2 + 2CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2
3.
Ca3(PO4)2 + 4H3PO4 = 3Ca(H2PO4)2
.
1.
Ca(HCO3)2 = CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
2. . .
Ba(HCO3)2 + Ba(OH)2 = 2BaCO3 + 2H2O
, , . .. , ZnOHCl, Fe(OH)2Cl, AlOHSO4 , , .
1. ,
ZnCl2 + H2O = [Zn(OH)]Cl + HCl
2. ( )
AlCl3 + 2NaOH = [Al(OH)2]Cl + 2NaCl
3.
2MgCl2 + 2Na2CO3 + H2O = [Mg(OH)]2CO3 + CO2 + 4NaCl
.
1. .
[Cu(OH)]2CO3() = 2CuO + CO2 + H2O
2. : .
Sn(OH)Cl + HCl = SnCl2 + H2O
. , ( , ), H2O, KBr, H2S, Cs2(S2), N2O, NH3, HN3, CaC2, SiH4. .
, , ( ), , CSO, IO2F3, SBrO2F, CrO(O2)2, PSI3, (CaTi)O3, (FeCu)S2, Hg(CN)2, (PF3)2O, VCl2(NH2). , CSO CS2, .
, :
| OF2 | K2O2 |
| HgCl2 (II) | Na2S |
| Hg2Cl2 | Mg3N2 |
| SBr2O - | NH4Br |
| N2O | Pb(N3)2 (II) |
| NO2 | CaC2 |
, .
, , .. , , , , . . , . , CO, NO, NO2, (FeIIFe2III)O4, , (, , ) . , NO NO2 ( N), , II, NII NIV. (FeIIFe2III)O4 (III)-(II)
, , , .
, AgF, KBr, Na2S, Ba(HS)2, NaCN, NH4Cl, Pb(N3)2, , , , ( ). F, Cl, Br, 2S, CN N3. , , F(aqua) , 2S(aqua) . , .
, , ( Pd): Ag, Au, Cd, Hg, In, Tl.
LiAlH4, NaBH4 .
(2) :
2Li + H2 = 2LiH
Ca + H2 = CaH2
:
LiH + H2O = LiOH + H2
:
CH3-CO-CH3 + Na+H- = CH3-CO-C-H2Na+ + H2
4.1
. , XIXXX . , , , . .
. , , , , . a- . , a- , .. , , , . 1911 . . , , , .
, . , , . ( ). . , .. .
1913 ( ):
1) , () , .
2) . ( ).
3) . . ν, :
hν = E E,
h (h=6,62 ×1034 ×); , (.4.1.).
.4.1. .
, , ( ), 1924 . , ,
λ = h/(m . v), m , v .
(, , , λ = /ν = hν. . , . .
- . . , . : p = mv. , , .
4.2 .
, . .
, ( ):
Y ;
m . me = 9,109.10-31 ;
U ;
E ;
x, y, z .
Y E. . |Y|2 . |Y|2. dv dv. - , .. 
, , . , , 0,9 ( 90%) .
, () , . , .
, Y, , , . n, ℓ ml. , .
