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How the Internet Became a Big Boy




 

A. What does the title of the article refer to? How do you think the Internet evolved? Read the article to check. Seven paragraphs have been removed from the article. Choose, from paragraphs A-H, the one which fits each gap (1-7). The first one has been done for you. There is one paragraph which you do not need to use.

In the summer of 1968, experts at the RAND Corporation, Americas foremost Cold War think tank, were considering a strange strategic problem. How could the US authorities successfully communicate after a nuclear war? No matter how thoroughly a network was armoured or protected, its switches and wiring would always be vulnerable to bombs. An attack could reduce any conceivable network to tatters.

1. D

The principles were simple. All the nodes in the network would be equal in status, each with its own authority to originate, pass and receive messages. The messages themselves would be divided into packets. Each packet would begin at some specified source node, and end at some other specified destination node. It would wind its way through the network on an individual basis.

2.

This excited and intrigued many, because it did sound like a theory for an indestructible network. In the autumn of 1969, the first node was installed in UCLA. By December 1969, there were four nodes on the infant network, which was named ARPANET, after its Pentagon sponsor (the Advanced Research Projects Agency). An added bonus was that scientists and researchers could share one anothers computer facilities from a great distance away. This was a very handy service, for computer time was precious in the early 70s. In 1971 there were fifteen nodes in ARPANET; by 1972, thirty-seven nodes. And it was good.

3.

The invention of the mailing list followed naturally. This was an ARPANET broadcasting technique in which an identical message could be sent automatically to large numbers of network subscribers. Interestingly, one of the first really big mailing lists was SF-LOVERS, for science fiction fans. Discussing science fiction on the network was not work-related and was frowned upon by many ARPANET computer administrators, but this didnt stop it from happening.

4.

As early as 1977, TCP/IP was being used by other networks to link to ARPANET. ARPANET itself remained fairly tightly controlled, at least until 1983, when its military segment broke off and became MILNET. But TCP/IP linked everyone to everyone else. And ARPANET itself, though it was growing, became a smaller and smaller neighbourhood amid the vastly growing constellation of other linked machines.

5.

In 1984 the National Science Foundation got into the act. The new NSFNET set a blistering pace for technical advancement, linking newer, faster, shinier supercomputers, through thicker, faster links, upgraded and expanded, again and again, in 1986, 1988 and 1990. And other government agencies leapt in: NASA, the National Institutes of Health, the Department of Energy, each of them maintaining their own digital kingdom in the Internet confederation. A mere twenty years had passed since the invention of the ARPANET, but few people remembered it now.

6.

The Internet pace of growth in the early 1990s was spectacularly ferocious, at some point achieving a monthly growth of 20%. The number of host machines with direct connection to TCP/IP doubled every year from 1988 to 1997. The Internet moved out of its original base in military and research institutions, into elementary and high schools, as well as into public libraries and the commercial sector and, of course, into millions of homes.

7.

And so the story goes. The real Internet of the future may bear very little resemblance to todays, or even todays predictions. Predictions have never seemed to have much to do with the seething, fungal development of the Internet. After all, todays Internet bears little resemblance to those original grim plans for RANDs post-holocaust command grid. Its a fine and happy irony.

Readers Digest. 2008

 

a. By the second year of operation, however, an odd fact became clear. ARPANETs users had warped the computer-sharing network into a dedicated, high-speed, federally subsidized electronic postal service. The main traffic was not long-distance computing, but news and personal messages.

b. All these sources of conflict remain in a stumbling balance today, and the Internet, so far, remains in a thrivingly anarchical condition. Once upon a time, the NSFNETs high-speed, high-capacity lines were known as the Internet Backbone, and their owners could rather lord it over the rest of the Internet; but today there are backbones in Canada, Japan, and Europe.

c. As the 70s and 80s advanced, other entire networks fell into the digital embrace of this ever-growing web of computers. Since TCP/IP was public domain, and the basic technology was decentralized and rather anarchic by its very nature, it was difficult to stop people from barging in and linking up. In fact, nobody really wanted to stop them from joining this branching complex of networks, which came to be known as the Internet.

d. And how would the network itself be commanded and controlled? Any central authority would be an obvious and immediate target for an enemy missile. RAND mulled over this grim puzzle in deep military secrecy, and arrived at a daring solution. In the first place, they would design a network with no central authority. Furthermore, they would design it to operate while in tatters.

e. The ARPAs original software for communication was known as NCP, Network Control Protocol, as time passed and the technique advanced, NCP was superceded by a higher-level, more sophisticated standard known as TCP/IP. This software converted messages into streams of packets at the source, then reassembled them back into messages at the destination.

f. Why did so many people want to be on the Internet? One of the main reasons was simply freedom. The Internet is a rare example of a truly, modern, functional anarchy. There is no Internet Inc. There are no official censors, no bosses, no board of directors, no stockholders. This virtual freedom, many hold, was the major reason why this form of communication attracted so many users so quickly.

g. For it had become a happy victim of its own overwhelming success. Its users scarcely noticed, for ARPANETs functions not only continued but steadily improved. The use of TCP/IP standards for computer networking is now global. In 1971, there were only a handful of nodes in the ARPANET network. Today there are hundreds of thousands of nodes, scattered over virtually every country in the world. Five hundred million people use this gigantic mother of all computer networks.

h. The route that the packet took would be unimportant. Only reaching its final destination would count. Basically, the packet would be tossed like a hot potato from node to node, until it ended up in the proper place. If big pieces of the network had been blown away, that simply wouldnt matter.

 

B. Answer the following questions.

1. Which parts of the text helped you insert the missing paragraphs?

2. What is meant by the phrase reduce any conceivable network to tatters (paragraph 1)?

3. What does got into the act mean (in the first line of the paragraph after gap 5)?

4. In your own words, explain why the writer calls the Internet a functional anarchy (paragraph F).

5. According to the last paragraph, what can we expect from the Internet tomorrow?

 

 

Render the article into English and say what you think about new ways of using the Internet.

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Render the article into English and suggest your methods of preventing swindle on the Internet.

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-. 2007

 

A. Read the article and answer the questions.

1. Why is it impossible to control the Internet?

2. Why is it necessary to limit the content of the Internet?

3. Why is it useless to stand for freedom of speech or for the regulation of the Internet?

4. Do you think there should be some restrictions on the Internet? If so, how should it be put into practice?

 

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. 2008

 

B. Summarize the article in English.

UNIT 2.
BETTER DEAD THAN COED?

 

Single-Sex Education

 

A. Skim through the article to give the main idea.

In the past five years, there has been an extraordinary surge of interest in single-sex public education. The regulations which were published on October 25, 2006, which facilitate single-sex education in American public schools, have significantly stoked this interest. Unfortunately, this exuberance has led some school districts to plunge into experimentation with this format without a thorough grounding in the complexities of gender differences in how girls and boys learn.

Advocates of single-sex education do NOT believe that "all girls learn one way and all boys learn another way." On the contrary, we cherish and celebrate the diversity among girls and among boys. We understand that some boys would rather read a book than play football. We understand that some girls would rather play football rather than play with Barbies. Educators who understand these differences can inspire every child to learn to the best of her or his ability. Conversely, educators and parents are recognizing that all too often, coeducational settings actually reinforce gender stereotypes via the process that researchers call "gender intensification. " Boys at coed schools will tell you "poetry is for girls." Girls at coed schools will tell you that computer science is for boys.

The good news is that the gender-separate format can boost grades and test scores for BOTH girls and boys. However, that improvement doesn't happen automatically. Just putting girls in one room and boys in another is no guarantee of success. As with anything else in education, adequate preparation in proven, evidence-based strategies is the key.

We now have good evidence that single-sex classrooms CAN break down gender stereotypes, particularly when teachers have appropriate professional development. Girls in single-sex educational settings are more likely to take classes in math, science, and information technology. Boys in single-gender classrooms - led by teachers with training in how to lead such classrooms - are much more likely to pursue interests in art, music, drama, and foreign languages. Both girls and boys have more freedom to explore their own interests and abilities than in the coed classroom.

It's not sufficient just to put girls in one classroom and boys in another. In order to improve academic performance and broaden educational horizons, one will need to understand the subtleties of gender differences in learning.

There are some basic, but often misunderstood, facts about girls and boys:

The brains of girls and boys develop along different trajectories. Some differences are genetically programmed and are present at birth; other differences are manifested later in childhood.

Girls and boys learn in subtly different ways, in part because of those differences in the developmental trajectory of the brain.

This does NOT imply that "all girls learn one way and all boys learn another way" - that's not a true statement, and nobody associated with The National Association for Single-Sex Public Education (NASSPE) believes it! We celebrate and cherish the variations AMONG girls and AMONG boys. Precisely because girls are so diverse and boys are so diverse, single-sex schools offer unique educational opportunities for girls, and for boys.

www.singlexchools.org/home.php





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