, , .
, , .
- , - ; , ; , . , . , , . , . .
, . - , - . : , , . . , , , .
- . .. ( ) . .
, . . , , ( , , , , , , , .). (, , , , ..). (He, O2, P4, Hg) (CO2, H2O, HNO3, NH3, H2S, C6H12O6), . (CuSO4, NaCl .), (NaOH, Mg(OH)2, .).
, . (Fe3+, K+, Ca2+); (Cl-, H-, S2-).
(1.10-24 1.10-22 ), r, .. . - , , 1/12 12 (12). -12, 12,0. (...) 1,66057.10-24 . 1/12 12. . , . (). (), 1,007277 .. 1 ..., +1. (), 1,008665 ... 1 ..., 0. (), 0,0005468 ... , -1. , . , - , - , - . . , : 35Cl (75,5%) 37Cl (24,5%). r(Cl) = 35×0,755 + 37×0,245 = 35,5 ...
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r 1/12 12. r - , , ... r r -, . , . r r .
, . . : r (H2SO4) = 2×r(H) + r(S) + 4×r(O) = 2×1 + 32 + 4×16 = 98 ...
: 3 + 2l = CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O. : , , , . , , (3 l). (CaCl2, CO2 H2O).
(n). , - , n, (, ) (, C). , , . 12.
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, , 12 () 12.
- ( ) (, , , ), , : Na; H2O; NH4+; CO32-; (NH4)2CO3; NH3.H2O.
, , - NA= 6,02.1023. (n) :
n = V/V; n = m/M; n = N/NA.
, -. , ( ). , , .
- =m/n. /, /. . ( ). : Na - Ar (Na) = 23 ...; (Na) = 23 /; O ()r = 16 ..., () = 16 /; 2 r (2)
= 32 ..., (2)= 32 /.
, . . , , .
(w) , :
%
(c) , :
%
(j) , , , :
%
:
.
. . , , . , . =mc2. m . , 2,997925×105 /. , . , 1 2 241 835 . , 2,69×10-12 , . . , , . , . . :
- ( , +2=2 +22+2=(3)2; 2NaOH+ H2SO4=Na2SO4+2H2O; , Fe+CuSO4=FeSO4+Cu; , 2Ag2O4Ag+O2; 2Al(OH)3Al2O3+3H2O).
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- , (, , );
- ( , .. 3+2; N2+3H2 2NH3);
- ( , 4()+22()=2()+22(); , ()+2()=2());
- , (- ).
. . , -. , . , - . : Na1,0000001-1,001Cl ( ); Fe0,89-0,06 ( - +2 +3); V2Ta0,9-1,17 ( ). - , . - , (NaCl; V2Ta), , (FeO, NiO). .
. , , , . : N2O, N2O3 N2O5 ( 28 16:48:80 = 1:3:5) 2 ( 12 16:32=1:2). , . , .
. . . : 4NH3+5O2=4NO + 6H2O
(n(NH3):n(O2):n(NO):n(H2O)=V(NH3):V(O2):V(NO):V(H2O) = 4: 5: 4: 6).
. ( ) (, ).
.
- , (V) [n=V/V]. V=22,4 . (..): =101,3 ; =273 .
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() () : D= r/r=/ ( D).
: j= V1/V2+V1; c=n1/n1+n2; j=c.
. :
. = åici=åiji= 1f1+2f2+ifi.
, . , : (), (V), (). : - - 1×V1=2×V2 (T=const); - - 1×V2=T2×V1 (p=const); 1×2=2×1 (V=const); - 1V1/T1 = 2V2/T2. 1 (V=22,4 /), : R=0,082 ×./× (=1 .); 8,314 ×/× (=101,3 ); 62,36 ...×/× ( =
760 ...). R , n=1 . n , -: V = nRT V = .
. - (=1+2++i). () , , , (i =ji.).
( ). 26 /× ( 6,3-6,4 /). () , 1 1 . (m) , 1 1
= r= C/Cm=26/Cm (/).
( ).
.
. (m1/M(1) = m2/M(2) =n.) : (m) (), .. + 2B = AB2 : m(A): m(B): m(AB2) = (): (): (2).
() - , - . , .
() -, (/). ():
- ,
;
- ;
-
, .
, () , :
) 2n - = (2n)/2n;
) ()n - = (()n)/n;
) nMOm - M = M(HnMOm)/n,
( n , .. , );
) MnAm - = (nAm)/n×m ( n ; m m ; n . n×m ). : Na2SO4 =/2; Al2(SO4)3 =/6; CaSO4 =/2; Bi2O3 =/6; Mg(OH)2 =/2; H4SiO4 =/4; H3PO3 =/2 ( 2[HPO3]); H4C2O2 =/1 (CH3COOH). , . , H2SO4 + NaOH = NaHSO4 + H2O =; H2SO4+2NaOH = Na2SO4 + 2H2O = /2.
- :
2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 5Cl2 + 2MnCL2 +2KCL + 8H2O;
Mn+7 + 5e Mn+2 (KMnO4) = M/5.