Lexico-syntactical SDs
certain structures, whose emphasis depends not only on the arrangement of sentence members but also on the lexico-semantic aspect of the utterance (V.A.K.)
- include: <antithesis>, <climax>, <anticlimax>, <simile>, <litotes>, <periphrasis>
See: <lexical SDs>, <cluster SDs>, <syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>
Antithesis
a semantically complicated <parallel construction>, the two parts of which are semantically opposite to each other
- is to stress the heterogenity of the described phenomenon, to show that the latter is a dialectical unity of two (or more) opposing features. (V.A.K.)
e.g. Some people have much to live on, and little to live for. (Wilde)
e.g. If we dont know who gains by his death we do know who loses by it. (A.Christie)
e.g. Mrs. Nork had a large home and a small husband. (S.Lewis)
e.g. In marriage the upkeep of woman is often the downfall of man. (S.Evans)
e.g. Dont use big words. They mean so little. (Wilde)
- stylistic opposition, based on relative opposition which arises out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs
e.g. saint devil, reign serve, hell heaven, youth age, fiery frosty
The words involved in the opposition do not display any additional nuance of <meaning> caused by being opposed one to another.
- is generally moulded in <parallel construction>;
- is often signalled by the introductory connective but, when so, the other structural signal, the parallel arrangement, may not be evident, it may be unnecessary;
- a device, bordering between stylistics and logic;
It is essential to distinguish between antithesis and what is termed contrast. Contrast is a literary (not a linguistic) device based on logical opposition between the phenomena set one against another.
- has the following basic functions: rhythm-forming (because of the parallel arrangement on which it is founded); copulative; dissevering; comparative
Source: <I.R.G.>:222-224
, () (I.V.A.)
See: <oxymoron>, <parallel construction>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>
Climax
Gradation
a semantically complicated <parallel construction>, in which each next word combination (clause, sentence) is logically more important or emotionally stronger and more explicit (V.A.K.)
Three types:
@ logical climax
a three-step <climax> (the most widely spread model), in which intensification of logical importance, of emotion or quantity (size, dimensions) is gradually rising step by step (V.A.K.)
is based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them (I.R.G.)
e.g. Better to borrow, better to beg, better to die! (Dickens)
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e.g. Like a well, like a vault, like a tomb, the prison had no knowledge of the brightness outside. (Dickens)
e.g. For that one instant there was no one else in the room, in the house, in the world, besides themselves. (M.Wilson)
@ emotive climax
a two-step <climax>, in which the second part repeats the first one and is further strengthened by an intensifier (V.A.K.)
is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with <emotive meaning> (I.R.G.)
e.g. He was so helpless, so very helpless. (W.Deeping)
e.g. She felt better, immensely better. (W.Deeping)
e.g. I have been so unhappy here, so very very unhappy. (Dickens)
@ quantitative climax
an evident increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts (I.R.G.)
e.g. They looked at hundreds of houses; they climbed thousands of stairs; they inspected innumerable kitchens. (S.Maugham)
e.g. Little by little, bit by bit, and day by day, and year by year the baron got the worst of some disputed question. (Dickens)
@
e.g. We were all in all to one another, it was the morning of life, it was bliss, it was frenzy, it was everything else of that sort in the highest degree. (Dickens)
e.g. I am firm, thou art obstinate, he is pig-headed. (B.Charlestone)
e.g. No tree, no shrub, no blade of grass that was not owned. (J. Galsworthy)
an arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance importance, or emotional tension in the utterance (I.R.G.:219)
(I.V.A.)
Syn.: climax, gradation
Ant.: <anticlimax>
See: <parallel construction>, <repetition>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>
Anticlimax
,
a <climax> suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought which defeats expectations of the reader (listener) and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasised idea (V.A.K.)
e.g. It was appalling and soon forgotten. (Galsworthy)
e.g. He was unconsolable for an afternoon. (Galsworthy)
e.g. Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything except the obvious. (Wilde)
Ant.: <climax>
See: <lexico-syntactical SDs>
Simile
an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of some quality
The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. The tenor and the vehicle form the two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected by one of the following link words: like, as, as though, as if, as like, such as, as... as, etc.
e.g. She is like a rose.
e.g. He stood immovable like a rock in a torrent. (J.Reed)
e.g. His muscles are hard as rock. (T.Capote)
e.g. The conversation she began behaved like green logs: they fumed but would not fire. (T.Capote)
Source: <V.A.K.>
characterisation of one object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things
- excludes all the properties of the two objects except one which is made common to them;
- forcibly set one object against another regardless of the fact that they may be completely alien to each other;
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e.g. Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare. (Byron)
e.g. Other words live but a short time and are like bubbles on the surface of water they disappear leaving no trace of their existence. (I.R.G.)
e.g. His mind was restless, but it worked perversely and thoughts jerked through his brain like the misfirings of a defective carburettor. (S.Maugham)
e.g. It was that moment of the year when the countryside See ms to faint from its own loveliness, from the intoxication of tis scents and sounds. (Galsworthy)
Source: <I.R.G.>
Compare: <logical comparison>
See: <metaphor>, <epic simile> or <Homeric simile>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>
(logical) comparison
()
a) an ordinary comparison of two objects belonging to the same classes (V.A.K.)
e.g. She is like her mother.
b) weighing two objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of establishing the degree of their sameness or difference
- takes into consideration all the properties of the two objects, stressing the one that is compared
e.g. The boy See ms to be as clever as his mother.
Source: <I.R.G.>
Compare: <simile>
See: <lexico-syntactical SDs>
(the) tenor
(the) vehicle
See: <simile>
Epic simile
Homeric simile
extended <simile>, sustained expression of likeness
See: <simile>
Syn.: epic simile, Homeric simile
Litotes
a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a possessive evaluation
- the first component is always the negative particle not, while the second, always negative in semantics, varies in form from a negatively affixed word (as above) to a negative phrase
e.g. Her face was not unpretty. (K.Kesey)
e.g. It was not unnatural if Gilbert felt a certain embarrassment. (E.Waugh)
e.g. The idea was not totally erroneous. The thought did not displease me. (I.Murdoch)
Source: <V.A.K.>
a) is a <stylistic device> consisting of a peculiar use of negative constructions: the negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or thing
- is a deliberate <understatement> used to produce stylistic effect: it is a negation that includes affirmation;
- is a means by which the natural logical and linguistic property of negation can be strengthened;
e.g. He found that this was no easy task.
- is used in different styles of speech, excluding those which may be called the matter-of-fact styles, like official style and scientific prose
b) a construction with two negations
e.g. not unlike, not unpromising, not displeased
e.g. Soames, with his lips and his squared chin was not unlike a bull dog. (Galsworthy)
Source: <I.R.G.>
, ,
e.g. it is not unlikely = it is very likely; he was not unaware of = he was quite aware of
- ;
- :
e.g. it is not difficult to See = it easy to See
- ; Ÿ , : , :
e.g. It is rather an unusual story, isnt it? = You lie. It would not suit be all that well. = It is impossible.
Source: <I.V.A.>, 236
See: <understatement>, <transference>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>
Periphrasis
Circumlocution
a) using a roundabout form of expression instead of a simpler one
b) using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word
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They are classified into <figurative periphrasis> (<metaphoric periphrasis> or <metonymic periphrasis>) and <logical periphrasis> (<euphemistic periphrasis>)
Source: <V.A.K.>
a device which, according to Websters dictionary, denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression
- aims at pointing to one of the See mingly insignificant or barely noticeable features or properties of the given object, and intensifies this property by naming the object by the property;
- makes the reader perceive the new appellation against the background of the one existing in the language code and the twofold simultaneous perception secures the stylistic effect;
- like <simile>, has a certain cognitive function inasmuch as in deepens our knowledge of the phenomenon described;
e.g. I understand you are poor, and wish to earn money by nursing the little boy, my son, who has so prematurely deprived of what can never be replaced. \[= mother\] (Dickens)
e.g. The lamp-lighter made his nightly failure in attempting to brighten up the street with gas. \[= lit the street lamps\] (Dickens)
If a periphrastic locution is understandable outside the context, it is not a stylistic device but merely a synonymous expression.
e.g. the cap and gown (student body); a gentleman of the long robe (a lawyer); the fair sex (women); my better half (my wife)
Source: <I.R.G.>
<>, , (I.V.A.)
e.g. The beast that bears me. (horse) (W.Shakespeare - L)
See: <euphemism>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>
Syn.: periphrasis, circumlocution
Figurative periphrasis
Metaphoric periphrasis
Metonymic periphrasis
(, )
a <periphrasis> that is made of phrase-metonymies or phrase-metaphors (V.A.K.)
- is to convey a purely individual perception of the described object
e.g. The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of the fighting in Africa. \[=wounded\] (I.Shaw)
e.g. His huge leather chairs were kind to the femurs. (R.P.Warren)
e.g. I took my obedient feet away from him. (W.S.Gilbert)
See: <metaphor>, <metonymy>, <periphrasis>
Syn.: figurative periphrasis, metaphoric periphrasis, metonymic periphrasis
Logical periphrasis
Euphemistic periphrasis
Euphemism
()
a phrase synonymic with the words which were substituted by <periphrasis> because the direct nomination of the not too elegant feature of appearance was substituted by a roundabout description
- offers more polite (euphemistic) qualification instead of a coarser one
e.g. Mr. Du Pont was dressed in the conventional disguise \[the suit \] with which Brooks Brothers cover the shame of American millionaires \[the paunch (belly)\]. (The Morning Star)
e.g. I am thinking an unmentionable thing about your mother. (I.Shaw)
Source: <V.A.K.>
a) a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one
b) a synonym which aims at producing a deliberately mild effect
e.g. to die = to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to be gone; to kick the bucket, to give up the ghost, to go west
e.g. to lie = to possess a vivid imagination, to tell stories; speak with a forked tongue, throw a curve
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e.g. They think we have come by this horse in some dishonest manner. \[= have stolen it\] (Dickens)
Source: <I.R.G.>
See: <periphrasis>
Syn.: logical periphrasis, euphemistic periphrasis, euphemism
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{{ .. }}
Convergence
,
e.g. And heaved and heaved, still unrestingly heaved the black sea, as if its vast tides were a conscience. (H. Melville Moby-Dick)
e.g. Sara was a menace and a tonic, my best enemy; Rozzie was a disease, my worst friend. (J.Gary The Horses Mouth)
e.g. The rank and file of doctors are no more scientific than their tailors; or their tailors are no less scientific than they. (B.Shaw) (<parallel construction>, <anadiplosis>, <antithesis>, <negation>)
Source: <I.V.A.>
e.g. The more you study, the more you know, the more you know the more you forget. (proverb) (<parallel construction>, <anaphora>, <anticlimax>)
e.g. Live hundred years, learn hundred years, and die a fool! (proverb) (<parallel construction>, <epiphora>, <anticlimax>
See: <syntactical convergence>, <repetition>, <syntactical SDs>
Superfluity
, , (I.V.A.)
Coupling
(I.V.A.)
e.g. Hedges have eyes and walls have ears. (proverb)
e.g. I kissed thee ere I killed thee. (Shakespeare)
e.g. A Soul as full of Worth as void of Pride, // Which nothing See ks to show, or needs to hide, // Which nor to guilt nor fear its Caution owes, // And boasts a Warmth that from no passion flows. (A.Popa to J.Kregs)
See: <parallel construction>
Allegory
(I.V.A.)
e.g. See: Sonnet LX by W.Shakespeare, . , ()
Trope
- , (I.V.A.)
See: <tropes>; <lexical SDs>
Tropes
include: <epithet>, <metaphor>, <metonymy>, <oxymoron>, <periphrasis>, <personification>, <simile>
See: <trope>; <lexical SDs>
Semi-marked structure
(once bellow a time) (chips of when) (.)
e.g. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously (.)
e.g. a grief ago, a farmyard away, all the sun long, a white noise, the shadow of a sound, a pretty how town, little whos, he danced his did, for as long as forever is e.g. He is dreadfully married. He is the most married man I ever saw. (A.Ward)
Source: <I.V.A.>
Autology
(-) , (I.V.A.)
See: <stylistic device>
Synonyms
, , - - , , (I.V.A.)
See: <synonymical repetition>; <logical periphrasis>; <lexical SDs>
Transposition
Grammatical metaphor
1a)
1b) - /
See: <personification>
2)
:
e.g. , , . , .
e.g. Catch you taking liberties with a gentleman! (B.Shaw)
- , , , ,
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See: <rhetorical question>
Syn.: transposition, grammatical metaphor
Zoonymic metaphor
Zoomorphism
,
, .. , (, ) (I.V.A.)
e.g. ass, bear, beast, bitch, bookworm, donkey, duck, kid, monkey, mule, pig, shark, snake, swine, tabby, toad, wolf, worm, angel, devil, imp, sphinx, witch (I.V.A.)
e.g. I was not going to have all the [u]old tabbies[/u] bossing her around just because she is not what they call our class. (A.Wilson - The Middle Age)
e.g. What were you talking about to that old mare downstairs? (S.Delaney)
e.g. Dont be such a donkey, dear. (C.P.Snow)
Syn.: zoonymic metaphor, zoomorphism
Group genitive
Group possessive
('s) , ,
e.g. She's the boy I used to go with's mother. // She's the man that bought my wheelbarrow's wife. // It's the young fellow in the backroom's car. // He is the niece, I told you about's husband. (J.Bailey)
- - , - .
Source: <I.V.A.>
is the construction by which the ending -'s of the possessive case can be added to the last word of a noun phrase, which is regarded as a single unit:
e.g. The king of Spain's daughter.
e.g. John and Mary's baby.
e.g. Somebody else's umbrella.
e.g. A quarter of an hour's drive.
Expressions like these are natural and acceptable.
Informal language, however, permits the extension of the construction to long and complicated phrases:
e.g. The people in the house opposite's geraniums.
e.g. The woman I told you about on the phone yesterday's name is Thompson.
e.g. The man who called last week's umbrella is still in the hall.
In these, the connection between the words forming the group possessive is much looser and more complicated than in the earlier examples. The effect is often somewhat ludicrous.
Expressions of this sort should not be used in serious prose.
e.g. [u]Substitute:[/u]
e.g. The geraniums of the people in the house opposite
e.g. The name of the woman I told you about on the phone yesterday is Thompson.
e.g. The umbrella of the man who called last week is still in the hall.
Source: The Oxford Guide to English Usage
[m5][url]http://www.englspace.com/dl/files/oxfrd_gu.zip[/url]
See: <morphological level>, <colloquial type of language>
Elative
(I.V.A.)
e.g. a most valuable idea, the sweetest baby, the newest fashion of all, a most foolish wife; the orangemostest drink in the world(I.V.A.)
e.g. You cannot be deader then the dead. (E.Hemingway)
e.g. Oh, Josie, you are a naughty girl, you really are. I was hoping youd have everything nice and clean and tidy when I came in. (J.Osborne and A.Creighton)
See: <morphological level>
Reprise
, , , , , .. , . (I.V.A.)
e.g. Beat! beat! drums! blow! bugles! blow! (W.Whitman)
e.g. Tiger, tiger, burning bright. (W.Blake)
e.g.... where white horses and black horses and brown horses and white and black horses and brown and white horses trotted tap-tap-tap tap-tap-tappety-tap over cobble stones...(.Β)
See: <repetition>, <morphemic repetition>, <alliteration>, <assonance>, <synonymical repetition>
Syntactical convergence
,
e.g. ( ): To make a separate peace with poverty, filth, immorality or ignorance is treason to the rest of the human race. (S. Levenson. Everything but Money)
e.g. , , , . .
e.g. , .. , .
- .
, , , , .
e.g. A disorderly rush begins my parents, my wives, my girls, my children, my farm, my animals, my habits, my money, my music lessons, my face, my soul! I have to cry. (S.Bellow)
Source: <I.V.A.>, 256
See: <convergence>, <repetition>, <syntactical SDs>
Syllepsis
,
e.g. . , .
Source: <I.V.A.>, 258
See: <zeugma>
Negation
- , ;
- , , ;
- , ;
- , ;
e.g. The rank and file of doctors are no more scientific than their tailors; or their tailors are no less scientific than they. (B.Shaw)
- :
e.g. There is a point of no return unremarked at the time in most men lives. (Gr. Green The Comedians)
- :
e.g. All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. (Macbeth)
- , , :
e.g. Im wondering if I oughtnt to ring him up. (B.Shaw)
- , , :
e.g. Isnt that lovely? I shouldnt be a bit surprised if Robin doesnt do awfully well in some business quite soon. Gerald, it isnt so very long ago that . If it hadnt been for the children, I wouldnt have wanted to go on living. (J.Pristley)
- :
e.g. insupportable plagues, effect of that incurable distemper, inexpressible, incurable fools, inconceivable plagues (J.Swift) ( )
Source: <I.V.A.>, 233
See: <litotes>, <irony>, <double negative>
- , ;
- , ( - , ?), ;
- ;
- ;
- (<understatement>);
- (<litotes>);
- (<irony>);
- - , , ;
( , )
e.g. <->
e.g. he had never been handsome.
e.g. he was not in the last addicted to..
- ;
e.g. Ÿ ( ),
e.g. Ÿ ( , , , )
- , - . .
e.g. No one who ever See n Catherine Morland in her infancy would have supposed her born to be an heroine. (J.Austen Northanger Abbey)
Source: <N.F.P.>
See: <litotes>, <double negative>, <morphological level>
