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Environmental management systems Requirements with guidance for use

 

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Systemes de management environnemental Exigences et lignes directrices pour son utilisation


Contents   Foreword 3 Introduction 4 Environmental management systems Requirements with guidance for use. 8 1. Scope 8 2. Normative references 8 3. Terms and definitions 8 4. Environmental management system requirements 11 4.1. General requirements 11 4.2. Environmental policy 11 4.3. Planning 12 4.3.1. Environmental aspects 12 4.3.2. Legal and other requirements 12 4.3.3. Objectives, targets and programme(s) 12 4.4. Implementation and operation 13 4.4.1. Resources, roles, responsibility and authority 13 4.4.2. Competence, training and awareness 13 4.4.3. Communication 14 4.4.4. Documentation 14 4.4.5. Control of documents 15 4.4.6. Operational control 15 4.4.7. Emergency preparedness and response 15 4.5. Checking 16 4.5.1. Monitoring and measurement 16 4.5.2. Evaluation of compliance 16 4.5.3. Nonconformity, corrective action and preventive action 16 4.5.4. Control of records 17 4.5.5. Internal audit 17 4.6. Management review 18     Foreword   ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies (ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization. International Standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2. The main task of technical committees is to prepare International Standards. Draft International Standards adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting. Publication as an International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote. Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights. ISO 14001 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 207, Environmental management, Subcommittee SC 1, Environmental management systems. This second edition cancels and replaces the first edition (ISO 14001:1996), which has been technically revised.     Introduction     Organizations of all kinds are increasingly concerned with achieving and demonstrating sound environmental performance by controlling the impacts of their activities, products and services on the environment, consistent with their environmental policy and objectives. They do so in the context of increasingly stringent legislation, the development of economic policies and other measures that foster environmental protection, and increased concern expressed by interested parties about environmental matters and sustainable development.   Many organizations have undertaken environmental "reviews" or "audits" to assess their environmental performance. On their own, however, these "reviews" and "audits" may not be sufficient to provide an organization with the assurance that its performance not only meets, but will continue to meet, its legal and policy requirements. To be effective, they need to be conducted within a structured management system that is integrated within the organization.   International Standards covering environmental management are intended to provide organizations with the elements of an effective environmental management system (EMS) that can be integrated with other management requirements and help organizations achieve environmental and economic goals. These standards, like other International Standards, are not intended to be used to create non-tariff trade barriers or to increase or change an organization's legal obligations.   This International Standard specifies requirements for an environmental management system to enable an organization to develop and implement a policy and objectives which take into account legal requirements and information about significant environmental aspects. It is intended to apply to all types and sizes of organization and to accommodate diverse geographical, cultural and social conditions. The basis of the approach is shown in Figure 1. The success of the system depends on commitment from all levels and functions of the organization, and especially from top management. A system of this kind enables an organization to develop an environmental policy, establish objectives and processes to achieve the policy commitments, take action as needed to improve its performance and demonstrate the conformity of the system to the requirements of this International Standard. The overall aim of this International Standard is to support environmental protection and prevention of pollution in balance with socio-economic needs. It should be noted that many of the requirements can be addressed concurrently or revisited at any time.   The second edition of this International Standard is focused on clarification of the first edition, and has taken due consideration of the provisions of ISO 9001 to enhance the compatibility of the two standards for the benefit of the user community. For ease of use, the subclause numbers in Clause 4 of the body of this International Standard and in Annex A have been related. For example, 4.3.3 and A.3.3 both deal with objectives, targets and programme(s), and 4.5.5 and A.5.5 both deal with internal audit. In addition, Annex B identifies broad technical correspondences between ISO 14001:2004 and ISO 9001:2000 and vice versa.   There is an important distinction between this International Standard, which describes the requirements for an organization's environmental management system and can be used for certification/registration and/or self-declaration of an organization's environmental management system, and a non-certifiable guideline intended to provide generic assistance to an organization for establishing, implementing or improving an environmental management system. Environmental management encompasses a full range of issues, including those with strategic and competitive implications. Demonstration of successful implementation of this International Standard can be used by an organization to assure interested parties that an appropriate environmental management system is in place. Guidance on supporting environmental management techniques is contained in other International Standards, particularly those on environmental management in the documents established by ISO/TC 207. Any reference to other International Standards is for information only.   3 4 - . 8 1. 8 2. 8 3. 8 4. 11 4.1. 11 4.2. 11 4.3. 12 4.3.1. 12 4.3.2. 12 4.3.3. , () 12 4.4. 13 4.4.1. , , 13 4.4.2. , 13 4.4.3. ( ) 14 4.4.4. 14 4.4.5. 15 4.4.6. 15 4.4.7. 15 4.5. 16 4.5.1. 16 4.5.2. 16 4.5.3. , 16 4.5.4. 17 4.5.5. 17 4.6. 18 A () 19 19 B 25 () 25 ISO 14001:2004 ISO 9001:2000 25 28       (ISO) - ISO. , , , . , , ISO, . ISO (IEC) . , ISO/IEC , 2. , . , , (). , , 75 % , . - , . ISO . ISO14001 ISO/TC 207, " , SC 1, . (ISO 14001:1996), .         , , , . , , , 4 , .   "" "", . , "" "" , , , , . , , .   , (EMS), , . , , , () .   , , . , . 1. () , . , , , . , - . , .   , ISO 9001, . , 4 A . , 4.3.3 3.3 , , 4.5.5 5.5 . , B ISO 14001:2004 ISO 9001:2000 .   , / / , , . , , . , , . , , ISO/TC 207. .  
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  NOTE This International Standard is based on the methodology known as Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA). PDCA can be briefly described as follows. - Plan: establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with the organization's environmental policy. - Do: implement the processes. - Check: monitor and measure processes against environmental policy, objectives, targets, legal and other requirements, and report the results. - Act: take actions to continually improve performance of the environmental management system. Many organizations manage their operations via the application of a system of processes and their interactions, which can be referred to as the "process approach". ISO 9001 promotes the use of the process approach. Since PDCA can be applied to all processes, the two methodologies are considered to be compatible. This International Standard contains only those requirements that can be objectively audited. Those organizations requiring more general guidance on a broad range of environmental management system issues are referred to ISO 14004. This International Standard does not establish absolute requirements for environmental performance beyond the commitments, in the environmental policy, to comply with applicable legal requirements and with other requirements to which the organization subscribes, to prevention of pollution and to continual improvement. Thus, two organizations carrying out similar operations but having different environmental performance can both conform to its requirements. The adoption and implementation of a range of environmental management techniques in a systematic manner can contribute to optimal outcomes for all interested parties. However, adoption of this International Standard will not in itself guarantee optimal environmental outcomes. In order to achieve environmental objectives, the environmental management system can encourage organizations to consider implementation of the best available techniques, where appropriate and where economically viable, and fully take into account the cost-effectiveness of such techniques. This International Standard does not include requirements specific to other management systems, such as those for quality, occupational health and safety, financial or risk management, though its elements can be aligned or integrated with those of other management systems. It is possible for an organization to adapt its existing management system(s) in order to establish an environmental management system that conforms to the requirements of this International Standard. It is pointed out, however, that the application of various elements of the management system might differ depending on the intended purpose and the interested parties involved. The level of detail and complexity of the environmental management system, the extent of documentation and the resources devoted to it depend on a number of factors, such as the scope of the system, the size of an organization and the nature of its activities, products and services. This may be the case in particular for small and medium-sized enterprises.   Environmental management systems Requirements with guidance for use.     1. Scope     This International Standard specifies requirements for an environmental management system to enable an organization to develop and implement a policy and objectives which take into account legal requirements and other requirements to which the organization subscribes, and information about significant environmental aspects. It applies to those environmental aspects that the organization identifies as those which it can control and those which it can influence. It does not itself state specific environmental performance criteria.   This International Standard is applicable to any organization that wishes to a) establish, implement, maintain and improve an environmental management system, b) assure itself of conformity with its stated environmental policy, c) demonstrate conformity with this International Standard by   1) making a self-determination and self-declaration, or 2) seeking confirmation of its conformance by parties having an interest in the organization, such as customers, or 3) seeking confirmation of its self-declaration by a party external to the organization, or 4) seeking certification/registration of its environmental management system by an external organization. All the requirements in this International Standard are intended to be incorporated into any environmental management system. The extent of the application depends on factors such as the environmental policy of the organization, the nature of its activities, products and services and the location where and the conditions in which it functions. This International Standard also provides, in Annex A, informative guidance on its use.   2. Normative references   No normative references are cited. This clause is included in order to retain clause numbering identical with the previous edition (ISO 14001:1996).     3. Terms and definitions   For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.     3.1 auditor person with the competence to conduct an audit [ISO 9000:2000, 3.9.9]   3.2 continual improvement recurring process of enhancing the environmental management system (3.8) in order to achieve improvements in overall environmental performance (3.10) consistent with the organization's (3.16) environmental policy (3.11) NOTE The process need not take place in all areas of activity simultaneously.     3.3 corrective action action to eliminate the cause of a detected nonconformity (3.15) 3.4 document information and its supporting medium NOTE 1 The medium can be paper, magnetic, electronic or optical computer disc, photograph or master sample, or a combination thereof. NOTE 2 Adapted from ISO 9000:2000, 3.7.2.   3.5 environment surroundings in which an organization (3.16) operates, including air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans, and their interrelation NOTE Surroundings in this context extend from within an organization (3.16) to the global system.   3.6 environmental aspect element of an organization's (3.16) activities or products or services that can interact with the environment (3.5) NOTE A significant environmental aspect has or can have a significant environmental impact (3.7).     3.7 environmental impact any change to the environment (3.5), whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an organization's (3.16) environmental aspects (3.6) 3.8 environmental management system (EMS) part of an organization's (3.16) management system used to develop and implement its environmental policy (3.11)and manage its environmental aspects (3.6) NOTE 1 A management system is a set of interrelated elements used to establish policy and objectives and to achieve those objectives. NOTE 2 A management system includes organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures (3.19), processes and resources.   3.9 environmental objective overall environmental goal, consistent with the environmental policy (3.11), that an organization (3.16) sets itself to achieve     3.10 environmental performance measurable results of an organization's (3.16) management of its environmental aspects (3.6) NOTE In the context of environmental management systems (3.8), results can be measured against the organization's (3.16) environmental policy (3.11), environmental objectives (3.9), environmental targets (3.12)and other environmental performance requirements.     3.11 environmental policy overall intentions and direction of an organization (3.16) related to its environmental performance (3.10) as formally expressed by top management NOTE The environmental policy provides a framework for action and for the setting of environmental objectives (3.9) and environmental targets (3.12).   3.12 environmental target detailed performance requirement, applicable to the organization (3.16) or parts thereof, that arises from the environmental objectives (3.9) and that needs to be set and met in order to achieve those objectives     3.13 interested party person or group concerned with or affected by the environmental performance (3.10) of an organization (3.16) 3.14 internal audit systematic, independent and documented process for obtaining audit evidence and evaluating it objectively to determine the extent to which the environmental management system audit criteria set by the organization (3.16) are fulfilled NOTE In many cases, particularly in smaller organizations, independence can be demonstrated by the freedom from responsibility for the activity being audited.     3.15 nonconformity non-fulfilment of a requirement [ISO 9000:2000, 3.6.2]   3.16 organization company, corporation, firm, enterprise, authority or institution, or part or combination thereof, whether incorporated or not, public or private, that has its own functions and administration NOTE For organizations with more than one operating unit, a single operating unit may be defined as an organization.   3.17 preventive action action to eliminate the cause of a potential nonconformity (3.15) 3.18 prevention of pollution use of processes, practices, techniques, materials, products, services or energy to avoid, reduce or control (separately or in combination) the creation, emission or discharge of any type of pollutant or waste, in order to reduce adverse environmental impacts (3.7) NOTE Prevention of pollution can include source reduction or elimination, process, product or service changes, efficient use of resources, material and energy substitution, reuse, recovery, recycling, reclamation and treatment.   3.19 procedure specified way to carry out an activity or a process NOTE 1 Procedures can be documented or not. NOTE 2 Adapted from ISO 9000:2000, 3.4.5.   3.20 record document (3.4) stating results achieved or providing evidence of activities performed NOTE Adapted from ISO 9000:2000, 3.7.6.   4. Environmental management system requirements   4.1. General requirements   The organization shall establish, document, implement, maintain and continually improve an environmental management system in accordance with the requirements of this International Standard and determine how it will fulfil these requirements.   The organization shall define and document the scope of its environmental management system.   4.2. Environmental policy   Top management shall define the organization's environmental policy and ensure that, within the defined scope of its environmental management system, it a) is appropriate to the nature, scale and environmental impacts of its activities, products and services, b) includes a commitment to continual improvement and prevention of pollution, c) includes a commitment to comply with applicable legal requirements and with other requirements to which the organization subscribes which relate to its environmental aspects, d) provides the framework for setting and reviewing environmental objectives and targets, e) is documented, implemented and maintained, f) is communicated to all persons working for or on behalf of the organization, and g) is available to the public.   4.3. Planning 4.3.1. Environmental aspects   The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) a) to identify the environmental aspects of its activities, products and services within the defined scope of the environmental management system that it can control and those that it can influence taking into account planned or new developments, or new or modified activities, products and services, and   b) to determine those aspects that have or can have significant impact(s) on the environment (i.e. significant environmental aspects).     The organization shall document this information and keep it up to date.   The organization shall ensure that the significant environmental aspects are taken into account in establishing, implementing and maintaining its environmental management system.   4.3.2. Legal and other requirements   The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) a) to identify and have access to the applicable legal requirements and other requirements to which the organization subscribes related to its environmental aspects, and b) to determine how these requirements apply to its environmental aspects.     The organization shall ensure that these applicable legal requirements and other requirements to which the organization subscribes are taken into account in establishing, implementing and maintaining its environmental management system.   4.3.3. Objectives, targets and programme(s)   The organization shall establish, implement and maintain documented environmental objectives and targets, at relevant functions and levels within the organization. The objectives and targets shall be measurable, where practicable, and consistent with the environmental policy, including the commitments to prevention of pollution, to compliance with applicable legal requirements and with other requirements to which the organization subscribes, and to continual improvement. When establishing and reviewing its objectives and targets, an organization shall take into account the legal requirements and other requirements to which the organization subscribes, and its significant environmental aspects. It shall also consider its technological options, its financial, operational and business requirements, and the views of interested parties. The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a programme(s) for achieving its objectives and targets. Programme(s) shall include a) designation of responsibility for achieving objectives and targets at relevant functions and levels of the organization, and b) the means and time-frame by which they are to be achieved.   4.4. Implementation and operation 4.4.1. Resources, roles, responsibility and authority   Management shall ensure the availability of resources essential to establish, implement, maintain and improve the environmental management system. Resources include human resources and specialized skills, organizational infrastructure, technology and financial resources. Roles, responsibilities and authorities shall be defined, documented and communicated in order to facilitate effective environmental management.   The organization's top management shall appoint a specific management representative(s) who, irrespective of other responsibilities, shall have defined roles, responsibilities and authority for   a) ensuring that an environmental management system is established, implemented and maintained in accordance with the requirements of this International Standard, b) reporting to top management on the performance of the environmental management system for review, including recommendations for improvement.   4.4.2. Competence, training and awareness     The organization shall ensure that any person(s) performing tasks for it or on its behalf that have the potential to cause a significant environmental impact(s) identified by the organization is (are) competent on the basis of appropriate education, training or experience, and shall retain associated records.     The organization shall identify training needs associated with its environmental aspects and its environmental management system. It shall provide training or take other action to meet these needs, and shall retain associated records.   The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) to make persons working for it or on its behalf aware of   a) the importance of conformity with the environmental policy and procedures and with the requirements of the environmental management system, b) the significant environmental aspects and related actual or potential impacts associated with their work, and the environmental benefits of improved personal performance,     c) their roles and responsibilities in achieving conformity with the requirements of the environmental management system, and d) the potential consequences of departure from specified procedures.     4.4.3. Communication   With regard to its environmental aspects and environmental management system, the organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) for a) internal communication among the various levels and functions of the organization, b) receiving, documenting and responding to relevant communication from external interested parties.     The organization shall decide whether to communicate externally about its significant environmental aspects, and shall document its decision. If the decision is to communicate, the organization shall establish and implement a method(s) for this external communication.     4.4.4. Documentation   The environmental management system documentation shall include a) the environmental policy, objectives and targets, b) description of the scope of the environmental management system, c) description of the main elements of the environmental management system and their interaction, and reference to related documents, d) documents, including records, required by this International Standard, and e) documents, including records, determined by the organization to be necessary to ensure the effective planning, operation and control of processes that relate to its significant environmental aspects.     4.4.5. Control of documents   Documents required by the environmental management system and by this International Standard shall be controlled. Records are a special type of document and shall be controlled in accordance with the requirements given in 4.5.4. The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) to a) approve documents for adequacy prior to issue, b) review and update as necessary and re-approve documents,   c) ensure that changes and the current revision status of documents are identified,   d) ensure that relevant versions of applicable documents are available at points of use,   e) ensure that documents remain legible and readily identifiable,   f) ensure that documents of external origin determined by the organization to be necessary for the planning and operation of the environmental management system are identified and their distribution controlled, and g) prevent the unintended use of obsolete documents and apply suitable identification to them if they are retained for any purpose.   4.4.6. Operational control   The organization shall identify and plan those operations that are associated with the identified significant environmental aspects consistent with its environmental policy, objectives and targets, in order to ensure that they are carried out under specified conditions, by   a) establishing, implementing and maintaining a documented procedure(s) to control situations where their absence could lead to deviation from the environmental policy, objectives and targets, and b) stipulating the operating criteria in the procedure(s), and c) establishing, implementing and maintaining procedures related to the identified significant environmental aspects of goods and services used by the organization and communicating applicable procedures and requirements to suppliers, including contractors.   4.4.7. Emergency preparedness and response     The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) to identify potential emergency situations and potential accidents that can have an impact(s) on the environment and how it will respond to them.   The organization shall respond to actual emergency situations and accidents and prevent or mitigate associated adverse environmental impacts.   The organization shall periodically review and, where necessary, revise its emergency preparedness and response procedures, in particular, after the occurrence of accidents or emergency situations.   The organization shall also periodically test such procedures where practicable.   4.5. Checking 4.5.1. Monitoring and measurement   The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) to monitor and measure, on a regular basis, the key characteristics of its operations that can have a significant environmental impact.   The procedure(s) shall include the documenting of information to monitor performance, applicable operational controls and conformity with the organization's environmental objectives and targets.   The organization shall ensure that calibrated or verified monitoring and measurement equipment is used and maintained and shall retain associated records.     4.5.2. Evaluation of compliance   4.5.2.1 Consistent with its commitment to compliance, the organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) for periodically evaluating compliance with applicable legal requirements. The organization shall keep records of the results of the periodic evaluations.     4.5.2.2 The organization shall evaluate compliance with other requirements to which it subscribes. The organization may wish to combine this evaluation with the evaluation of legal compliance referred to in 4.5.2.1 or to establish a separate procedure(s). The organization shall keep records of the results of the periodic evaluations.   4.5.3. Nonconformity, corrective action and preventive action   The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) for dealing with actual and potential nonconformity(ies) and for taking corrective action and preventive action. The procedure(s) shall define requirements for   a) identifying and correcting nonconformity(ies) and taking action(s) to mitigate their environmental impacts,   b) investigating nonconformity(ies), determining their cause(s) and taking actions in order to avoid their recurrence, c) evaluating the need for action(s) to prevent nonconformity(ies) and implementing appropriate actions designed to avoid their occurrence, d) recording the results of corrective action(s) and preventive action(s) taken, and   e) reviewing the effectiveness of corrective action(s) and preventive action(s) taken.   Actions taken shall be appropriate to the magnitude of the problems and the environmental impacts encountered. The organization shall ensure that any necessary changes are made to environmental management system documentation.   4.5.4. Control of records   The organization shall establish and maintain records as necessary to demonstrate conformity to the requirements of its environmental management system and of this International Standard, and the results achieved. The organization shall establish, implement and maintain a procedure(s) for the identification, storage, protection, retrieval, retention and disposal of records.   Records shall be and remain legible, identifiable and traceable.   4.5.5. Internal audit   The organization shall ensure that internal audits of the environmental management system are conducted at planned intervals to a) determine whether the environmental management system 1) conforms to planned arrangements for environmental management including the requirements of this International Standard, and 2) has been properly implemented and is maintained, and b) provide information on the results of audits to management. Audit programme(s) shall be planned, established, implemented and maintained by the organization, taking into consideration the environmental importance of the operation(s) concerned and the results of previous audits. Audit procedure(s) shall be established, implemented and maintained that address   - the responsibilities and requirements for planning and conducting audits, reporting results and retaining associated records,   - the determination of audit criteria, scope, frequency and methods.   Selection of auditors and conduct of audits shall ensure objectivity and the impartiality of the audit process.   4.6. Management review   Top management shall review the organization's environmental management system, at planned intervals, to ensure its continuing suitability, adequacy and effectiveness. Reviews shall include assessing opportunities for improvement and the need for changes to the environmental management system, including the environmental policy and environmental objectives and targets. Records of the management reviews shall be retained.   Input to management reviews shall include a) results of internal audits and evaluations of compliance with legal requirements and with other requirements to which the organization subscribes, b) communication(s) from external interested parties, including complaints, c) the environmental performance of the organization, d) the extent to which objectives and targets have been met, e) status of corrective and preventive actions,   f) follow-up actions from previous management reviews,   g) changing circumstances, including developments in legal and other requirements related to its environmental aspects, and h) recommendations for improvement. The outputs from management reviews shall include any decisions and actions related to possible changes to environmental policy, objectives, targets and other elements of the environmental management system, consistent with the commitment to continual improvement.       , --- (PDA). PDCA . - : , . - : . - : , , . - : , . , , " ". ISO 9001 . , PDCA , .   , . , , ISO 14004.   , , , . , , , .   . . , , , . , , , .. "" . , () , . . , , , , () , . .     - .   1.   (), , , . , , , , . . , : a) , , ; b) ; c) : 1) 2) , (, ), 3) , 4) . . , , , , . .   2.   . (ISO 14001:1996).   3.   .   3.1 : , (ISO 9000:2000, 3.9.9)   3.2 : () (3.8) (3.10) (3.11) (3.16) - .   3.3 : , (3.15)   3.4 : 1 , , , , , . 2 ISO 9000:2000 3.7.2.   3.5 : , (3.16), , , , , , , , . (3.16), .   3.6 : (3.16), , (3.5). (3.7).   3.7 : (3.5), , (3.6) (3.16)   3.8 (): (3.16), (3.11) (3,6) 1 , . 2 , , , ( ), (3.19), .   3.9 : , (3.11), (3.16) .   3.10 : (3.6), (3.16) (3.8) (3.11) (3.16), (3.9), (3.12) .   3.11 : (3.16) (3.10), (3.9) (3.12).   3.12 : , (3.16) , (3.9), .   3.13 : , (3.10) (3.16) 3.14 : , , (3.16) , , , .   3.15 : [ISO 9000:2000, 3.6.2]     3.16 : , , , , , , , , . , , , .   3.17 : , (3.15)   3.18 : , , , , , ( ) , (3.7) , , , , , , , , .   3.19 : 1 , . 2 - ISO 9000:2000, 3.4.5.   3.20 : (3.4), . - ISO 9000:2000, 3.7.6.     4.   4.1.   , , , () . .   4.2.   , : a) , , ; b) ; c) , , , ; d) ; e) , ; f) , ; g) .   4.3. 4.3.1.   , (): a) , , , , , , b) , () (.. ). . , , .     4.3.2.   , (): a) , , ; b) , .   , , , , .   4.3.3. , ()   , . , , , , , , . , , , . , , , . , () . () : a) ; b) () .     4.4. 4.4.1. , ,   , , , . , , . , , . () , () , , , : a) , , ; b) , .     4.4.2. ,   , , , () () () (), , , . , . , . , (), , , : a) , ;   b) , ;   c) ; d) .     4.4.3. ( )   , , () :   a) ; b) , . , . , () .   4.4.4.   :   a) , ;   b) ;   c) , ;   d) , , ; e) , , , , .   4.4.5.   , , . , . 4.5.4. , () : a) ; b) , , ; c) , ; d) , ; e) , ; f) , , , , ; g) , - .   4.4.6.   , , , , : a) , () () , , ; b) () () ; c) , , , , .   4.4.7.   , () , () , . . , , , , , . , .   4.5. 4.5.1.   , () , . () , . , , .   4.5.2.   4.5.2.1 , , () . .   4.5.2.2 , . , , . 4.5.2.1 () (). .   4.5.3. ,   , () . () : a) () () ; b) (), () ; c) () () ; d) () () () (); e) () () (). . .     4.5.4.   , ,




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