The only existing classification system for synonyms was established by V.V. Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar. In his classification system there are three types of synonyms: ideographic (which he defined as words conveying the same concept but differing in shades of meaning), stylistic (differing in stylistic characteristics) and absolute (coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics).
However, the following aspects of his classification system are open to question.
Firstly, absolute synonyms are rare in the vocabulary. The vocabulary system tends to abolish them either by rejecting one of the absolute synonyms or by developing differentiation characteristics in one or both, or all of them. Therefore, it does not seem necessary to include absolute synonyms, which are a temporary exception, in the system of classification.
Secondly, there seems to be no rigid demarcation line between synonyms differing in their shades of meaning and in stylistic characteristics. There are numerous synonyms which are distinguished by both shades of meaning and stylistic colouring. Therefore, even the subdivision of synonyms into ideographic and stylistic isopen to question.
Classification of synonyms based on difference in connotations
A more modern and a more effective approach to the classification of synonyms may be based on the definition describing synonyms as words differing in connotations. It seems convenient to classify connotations by which synonyms differrather than synonyms themselves.
Types of connotations
I. The connotation of degree or intensity can be traced in such groups of synonyms as to surprise to astonish to amaze to astound; to like to admire to love to adore to worship.
II. In the group of synonyms to stare to glare to gaze to glance to peep to peer, all the synonyms except to glance, to peep denote a lasting act of looking at somebody or something, whereas to glance, to peep describe a brief look. These synonyms may be said to have a connotation of duration in their semantic structure.
III. The synonyms to stare to glare to gaze are differentiated from other words of the group by emotive connotations, and from each other by the nature of the emotion they imply.
One should be warned against confusing words with emotive connotations and words with emotive denotative meanings, e.g. angry furious enraged; fear terror horror. In the latter, emotion is expressed by the leading semantic component whereas in the former it is an accompanying, subsidiary characteristic.
IV. The evaluative connotation conveys the speakers attitude towards the referent, labelling it as good or bad. So in the group well-known famous notorious celebrated, the adjective notorious bears a negative evaluative connotation and celebrated a positive one. Confer: a notorious murderer, robber, coward, but a celebrated scholar, artist, singer.
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V. The causative connotation can be illustrated by the examples to shiver and to shudder, in whose semantic structures the cause of the act or process of trembling is encoded: to shiver with cold, from a chill; to shudder with horror, fear, etc.
VI. The connotation of manner can be singled out in some groups of verbal synonyms. The verbs to stroll to stride to trot to swagger to stagger to stumble all denote different ways and types of walking.
VII. The above mentioned verbs to peep and to peer are differentiated by connotations of duration and manner. But there is some other peculiarity in their semantic structures.
One peeps at smb./smth. through a hole, an opening, a newspaper, a curtain, etc. It seems as if the set of scenery is actually built within the words meaning and is reflected in the words semantic structure. We shall call this the connotation of attendant circumstances.
One peers at smb./smth. in darkness, through the fog, from a great distance. So, in the semantic structure of to peer are encodedcircumstances preventing one from seeing clearly.
VIII. The synonyms pretty, handsome, beautiful have been mentioned as the ones which are more or less interchangeable. Yet, each of them describes a special type of human beauty: beautiful is mostly associated with classical features and a perfect figure, handsome with a tall stature and fine proportions, pretty with small delicate features and a fresh complexion. This connotation may be defined as the connotation of attendant features.
IX. Stylistic connotations stand somewhat apart for two reasons. Firstly, some scholars do not regard the words stylistic characteristic as a connotative component of its semantic structure. Secondly, stylistic connotations are subject to further classification, namely: colloquial, slang, dialect, poetic, terminological, archaic. Here again we are dealing with stylistically marked words, but this time we approach the feature of stylistic characteristics from a different angle: from the point of view of synonyms frequent differentiation characteristics.
Here are some examples of synonyms which are differentiated by stylistic connotations. The word in brackets starting the group shows the denotation of the synonyms.
(Girl). Girlie (coll.) , ; lass, lassie (dial.); bird, birdie, jane, fluff, skirt (sl.), maiden (poet.) ;damsel (arch.) .
Answer these questions.
1. What are synonyms?
2. Say why synonyms are one of the languages most important expressive means. Illustrate your answer with examples.
3. Synonyms are sometimes described as words with dual characteristics. What is meant by this?
4. Which word in a synonymic group is considered to be the dominant synonym?
5. Can the dominant synonym be substituted for certain other members of a group of synonyms? Is the criterion of interchangeability applicable in this case?
6. The meanings of two apparent synonyms may be in a way opposed to each other. Why are such words still regarded as synonyms? Give examples.
7. How are synonyms traditionally defined? On what criterion is this definition based? Which aspects of this definition are open to criticism?
8. What types of synonyms were defined in V.V.Vinogradovs classification system?
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9. How can synonyms be defined in the terms of componential analysis? On what criterion is this definition based?
10. Show how the dual nature of synonyms can be clearly seen if they are regarded through semantic criterion.
11. Why is the definition of synonyms based on the criterion of interchangeability open to question?
12. What is the modern approach to classifying synonyms? Give examples.
13. What connotations differentiate the verbs to peep and to peer; the adjectives pretty, handsome and beautiful?
Vocabulary
conceptional
connote
causative
defiant
duality of synonyms
fictitious
precision
shade
Lecture 12
Euphemisms. Antonyms
(pp. 210 219)
1. Euphemisms. Their types and functions.
2. Antonyms. Which parts of speech do most antonyms belong to?
