1. The first scientific attempt at coaxing moisture from a cloud was in 1946, when scientist Vincent Schaefer dropped 3 pounds of dry ice from an airplane into a cloud and, to his delight, produced snow. The success of the experiment was modest, but it spawned optimism among farmers and ranchers around the country. It seemed to them that science had finally triumphed over weather.
2. Unfortunately, it didnt work out that way. Although there were many cloud-seeding operations during the late 1940s and the 1950s, no one could say whether they had any effect on precipitation. Cloud seeding, or weather modification as it came to be called, was clearly more complicated than had been thought. It was not until the early 1970s that enough experiments had been done to understand the processes involved. What these studies indicated was that only certain types of clouds are amenable to seeding. One of the most responsive is the winter orographic cloud, formed when air currents encounter a mountain slope and rise. If the temperature in such a cloud is right, seeding can increase snow yield by 10 to 20 per cent.
3. There are two major methods of weather modification. In one method, silver iodide is burned in propane-fired ground generators. The smoke rises into the clouds where the tiny silver-iodide particles act as nuclei for the formation of ice crystals. The alternate system uses airplanes to deliver dry-ice pellets. Dry ice does not provide ice-forming nuclei. Instead, it lowers the temperature near the water droplets in the clouds so that they freeze instantly a process called spontaneous nucleation. Seeding from aircraft is more efficient but also more expensive.
4. About 75 per cent of all weather modification in the United States takes place in the Western states. With the population of the West growing rapidly, few regions of the world require more water. About 85 per cent of the waters in the rivers of the West comes from melted snow. As one expert put it, the water problems of the future may make the energy problems of the 70s seem like childs play to solve. Thats why the U.S. bureau of Reclamation, along with state governments, municipal water districts, and private interests such as ski areas and agricultural cooperatives, is putting increased effort into cloud-seeding efforts. Without consistent and heavy snowfalls in the Rockies and Sierras, the west would literally dry up. The most intensive efforts to produce precipitation were during the Wests disastrous snow drought of 1976-1977. It is impossible to judge the efficiency of weather modification based on one crash program, but most experts think that such hurry-up programs are not very effective.
1. What is the main subject of the text?
a) the scientific contributions of Vincent Schaefer
b) developments in methods of increasing precipitation
c) the process by which snow crystals form
d) the effects of cloud seeding
2. The word spawned (given in the text in Italics) is closest in meaning to
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a) intensified
b) reduced
c) preceded
d) created
3. After the cloud-seeding operations of the late 1940s and the 1950s, the farmers and ranchers mentioned in the first paragraph probably felt
a) triumphant
b) modest
c) disappointed
d) optimistic
4. Which of the following can be inferred from the text about the term weather modification?
a) It is not as old as the term cloud seeding.
b) It has been in use since at least 1946.
c) It refers to only one type of cloud seeding.
d) It was first used by Vincent Schaefer.
5. According to the passage, winter orographic clouds are formed
a) on relatively warm winter days
b) over large bodies of water
c) during intense snow storms
d) when air currents rise over mountains
6. To which of the following does the underlined word they (given in the text in Italics) refer?
a) water droplets
b) clouds
c) ice-forming nuclei
d) airplanes
7. When clouds are seeded from the ground, what actually causes ice crystals to form?
a) propane
b) silver-iodide smoke
c) dry-ice pellets
d) nuclear radiation
8. Clouds would most likely be seeded from airplanes when
a) it is important to save money.
b) the process of spontaneous nucleation cannot be employed.
c) the production of precipitation must be efficient.
d) temperatures are lower than usual.
9. About what percentage of the western United States water supply comes from run-off from melted snow?
a) 10 percent
b) 20 percent
c) 75 percent
d) 85 percent
10. What does the author imply about the energy problems of the 1970s?
a) They were caused by a lack of water.
b) They took attention away from water problems.
c) They may not be as critical as water problems will be in the future.
d) They were thought to be minor at the time but turned out to be serious.
11. The author mentions agricultural cooperatives as an example of
a) state government agencies
b) private interests
c) organizations that compete with ski areas for water
d) municipal water districts
12. It can be inferred from the passage that the weather-modification project of 1976-77 was
a) put together quickly
b) a complete failure
c) not necessary
d) easy to evaluate
Weather
Ex. 1. Decide which of these words are hot words and which are cold words.
| to boil to pour to brew to drizzle to soak to shiver to freeze to thaw to the skin | warm chilly severe dry haze ice | harsh inclement hail sunshine gale fog patches | frost to melt sleet drought thunderstorm hurricane | gust cloud-burst pea-souper shower blizzard hoarfrost |
| Hot words | Cold words |
Ex. 2. a) Work in pairs. These words are used to describe weather. Add them to the chart below under the appropriate column.
| gusty breezy drizzly cloudy thundery occasional torrential | sultry freezing misty wintry unsettled scattered stifling | violent muggy blustery cloudless heavy slushy dense | gentle foggy windy flurry prolonged thick | strong mild frosty showery frequent dense | damp rainy sunny muddy nasty dull |
| windy weather | cold weather | wet weather | hot weather |
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b) Compare your answers. Can some words go under more than one column?
Ex. 3. With a partner, make a list of as many words and phrases as you can that can be used to talk about weather (in summer, in winter, when it rains cats and dogs, when it pours with rain, on a nasty (bright) day). Compare your list with those of the others.
Ex. 4. Complete the sentences with prepositions.
1. Winter sets the end of December our parts. a hard frost rivers and ponds are frozen . When the temperature falls 250 C zero it gets very cold.
2. London is famous its fog. They have fogs especially often autumn. When a thick fog spreads the city people cant see each other at arms length.
3. After heavy rains we are a spell good weather again.
4. It looks like rain: the sky is covered dark clouds, a cold wind is blowing the sea.
5. Its a lovely sight when everything is covered hoarfrost and glistens the sun.
6. I prefer to stay indoors rainy weather.
7. Nature looks its best early spring.
8. Indian summer is a short period warm sunny weather the beginning autumn.
9. The temperature has fallen zero and it is freezing.
10. Its poring rain. Youd better stay indoors.
11. Many people are fond winter sports.
Ex. 5. The British love talking about the weather. Its a neutral topic and theres always something to say on the topic. Consequently, there are many idioms in the language based on the weather. Read the following expressions and decide which ones could replace the underlined sections of the sentences below. Make up situations with new expressions.
a storm in a teacup
under a cloud
make heavy weather of
the calm before the storm
under the weather
get wind of
bright and breezy
its an ill wind that blows nobody any good
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1. Youre very cheerful for a dismal Monday morning.
2. Things are quiet at the moment but its an uneasy truce.
3. It seems like a tragedy now, but someone will derive some benefit from it.
4. He finds doing his homework very difficult indeed.
5. She is not very well at the moment.
6. We tried to keep the party a secret but, theyve managed to find out about it somehow.
7. He is in disgrace because of the way he behaved at the party last night.
8. The whole affair is a lot of fuss about nothing.
Ex. 6. Some people have strong reactions to the weather. What about you? Find out how other members of the group often feel:
on a cold winters morning
on a warm summers evening with a gentle see breeze
on a wet and windy day
towards the end of a long spell of very hot humid weather
just before a violent thunderstorm
Ex. 7. Give profound answers to the following questions.
| thunderstorm drought hurricane flood | blizzard typhoon tornado | snow shower | hail storms |
Which of these events occur where you live?
Which have you (never) experienced?
Which one is the most frightening?
Which does the most damage?
Which one is the most mysterious?
Ex. 8. Think of a specific day in the past week, and describe the weather in detail. Can your classmates guess which day youre describing?
Ex. 9. Read the dialogue and reproduce it: a) abridged; b) in the form of a monologue.
Weather
| Simon: | Isnt it marvellous to take a walk in Hyde Park on such a beautiful day, Mr. Winter? |
| Winter: | It is. These parks are really the lungs of London. By the way, Im a bit tired. Theres a nice bench. |
| S.: | You mean the bench where the girl is sitting? |
| W.: | Yes. Id like to talk to her. She looks a nice girl. |
| S.: | Its best to start with the weather. Thats always a safe subject. |
| W.: | Lets try. |
| W.: | Lovely day today, isnt it? |
| Girl: | It is. |
| W.: | It seems a glorious day. |
| G.: | I think we are in for a fine spell. |
| S.: | I hope it will last long. Theres hardly a cloud in the sky. |
| G.: | Well have a heat wave, I fear. |
| W.: | The thermometer is rising, but the barometer is falling. It must be 25 degrees in the shade. |
| S.: | 25 degrees centigrade correspond with wait a minute 77 degrees Fahrenheit. |
| G.: | Goodness me, an electronic computer seems to be necessary to compare centigrade and Fahrenheit thermometers, |
| W.: | It is very close and sultry today. |
| S.: | You are right. It is muggy and oppressive. |
| W.: | Not a leaf is stirring. |
| S.: | Theres hardly a breath of air. |
| G.: | I am hot. And the sun dazzles my eyes. |
| W.: | It would be better to wear sun-glasses. |
| G.: | By the way, Ive just read the weather forecast in my newspaper here. |
| S.: | Let me see. |
| G.: | Pressure will remain high to the south-west of the British Isles. |
| S.: | There will be occasional rain drizzle. |
| G.: | But bright weather with a few scattered showers will spread to England and Wales. |
| W.: | And here is the weather-chart. |
| S.: | On the Continent weve had so much of English weather, and weve always wanted to experience a real London fog. |
| G.: | A pea-souper, you mean. But not in late spring or summer; it is in autumn and winter that you get the real pea-soupers. Then the whole traffic is put out of order, and the bobbies have to carry torches. |
| W.: | I fear a thunderstorm is brewing. Do you see the sheet lightning there? |
| G.: | Yes, I do. The sky is overcast, and the sun is going in. It looks like rain. |
| S.: | What a gust of wind! |
| W.: | Thunder and lightning! |
| G.: | Its beginning to rain. |
| S.: | And weve forgotten our umbrellas and macs! |
| W.: | It never rains, but it pours! |
| G.: | Fortunately enough, Ive brought my folding umbrella. Let me put it up |
| W.: | What a tremendous clap of thunder! |
| S.: | And what a flash of lightning! |
| G.: | Chain-lightning. I hope it didnt strike a building. |
| W.: | I dont think so, because all the buildings have lightning conductors. |
| S.: | The rain is torrential. Its absolutely pouring down now. |
| G.: | Its raining cats and dogs. |
| S.: | A real cloud-burst. |
| G.: | The ground is becoming soft and muddy. |
| S.: | Its clearing up. |
| W.: | The clouds are lifting. |
| G.: | Yes, it has left off raining. Look at this wonderful rainbow! |
| S.: | Bright sunshine again. |
| W.: | Now we know why English weather is something worth talking about. |
Ex. 10. Sum up the information youve learnt from the dialogue and justify the following: Talking about the weather is a good way to break the ice.
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Ex. 11. Make a detailed contrast of the two most extreme seasons of summer and winter. Here are some ideas about the aspects you could consider:
light and temperature
the clothes we wear
the way we spend our free time
Days of Abnormal Weather
