There are cases when the use of the Passive Voice seems to Russian students very peculiar because we find no analogous constructions in Russian. These cases are as follows:
1. The verbs to accord, to advise, to allow, to ask, to award, to deny, to envy, to forbid (rare), to forgive, to give, to grant, to offer, to order, to pay, to prescribe, to promise, to refuse, to show, to teach, to tell are used in the Passive Voice. These verbs always take an object expressed by a noun or an infinitive. The action expressed by the Passive Predicate passes on to the subject and the object. The subject corresponds to the Russian indirect object.
He was granted a ten days leave.
Has he been, shown the documents?
The patient was prescribed a strict diet.
He was ordered a change of scene.
We were told to wait.
N o t e. These verbs admit of another type of passive construction if the
object is expressed by a noun. Thus we can say not only I was given a book,
He was shown a book, but also A book was given to me, A book was shown to
him. The choice of the construction depends on the logical stress: in I was
given a book, He was shown a book the thing given is emphasized, which
occurs oftener; in The book was given to me, The book was shown to him the
person is emphasized.
2. The Passive Voice is possible with intransitive verbs used with prepositions: to account for, to agree upon, to alludeto, to arrive at (a conclusion, agreement, decision), to call for, to call upon, to comment upon, to count upon, to depend on (upon), to dispose of, to fire at, to hear of, to insist on (upon), to interfere with, to laugh at, to listen to, to look after, to look at, to look down upon ( - ), to look up to ( - ), to provide for, to put up at (), to put up with (), to read to, to refer to, to rely on, to run over, to send for, to speak about (of), to stare at, to talk about (to, over).
At last an agreement was arrived at.
Her strange behaviour was largely commented upon.
He can be depended upon to keep strict silence.
This is certainly a great inconvenience, but it must be put up with.
The article is often referred to.
Steerforth was looked up to by all the boys.
The composite verb to do away with the preposition with can be used in the Passive Voice.
In our country illiteracy was done away with many years ago.
N o t e. To send for can be used only in connection with people.
The doctor was sent for.
The secretary will be sent for.
() should be translated in the following way: to send somebody to fetch the medicine (the book). But we can say: A car (a cab, a taxi) was sent for.
3. The following verbal phraseological units can be used in the Passive Voice: to find fault with (, ), to lose sight of ( ), to make fun of, to make use of (), to pay attention to, to put an end to ( ), to set fire to, to take notice of, to take care of.
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The poor child was always being found fault with.
Soon the boat was lost sight of.
He was exceedingly absent-minded and was always made fun of.
His remarks were taken no notice of.
The discussion was put an end to by his sudden arrival.
4. Quite peculiar is the case when the subject of the passive predicate corresponds to the Russian adverbial modifier. This is the case with the intransitive verbs to live and to sleep with the preposition in.
The bed was not slept in.
The room is not lived in.
5. There are a number of transitive verbs in English which correspond to intransitive verbs in Russian. They are: to affect, to answer, to assist, to attend, to follow, to help, to influence, to join, to watch.
These verbs naturally admit of the passive construction while their Russian equivalents cannot be used in the Passive Voice.
She was greatly affected by the scene.
The report was followed by a discussion.
Walter Scotts poetry was strongly influenced by the popular ballads.
Such sentences are rendered in Russian by indefinite-personal sentences (- ) unless the doer of the action is mentioned. In the latter case either the Active Voice is used, which occurs rather seldom, or the Passive Voice (consisting of the verb + ).
was granted ten days leave.
.
At last an agreement was arrived at.
.
The bed was not slept in.
.
The poor child was always being found fault with.
.
Steerforth was looked up to by all the boys.
.
6. The verb to be +Participle II.
The combination to be + Participle II can denote an action, in which case it is a simple predicate expressed by a verb in the Passive Voice. It can also denote a state, then it is a compound nominal predicate consisting of a link verb and a predicative.
As the director was ill, the documents were signed by his assistant. (Were
signed denotes an action.)
When I came, the papers were signed and lay on the secretarys table. (Were
signed denotes a state.)
The compound nominal predicate expressed by the verb to be and Participle II can be translated only by the verb + . In the Present the verb is notused.
The statue is broken.
.
When I came, the papers were signed and lay on the secretarys table.
,
.
The use of tenses is closely connected with these meanings of the combination to be +Participle II.
When I came up to the gate, it was already locked.
, .
(The predicate indicates the state of the gate at a given moment.)
When I came up to the gate, it had already been locked.
, .
(The predicate indicates an action completed before a definite moment in the past.)
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Dont try to open the gate. It is locked. (state)
He . .
It has just been locked. (action)
.
It is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the verb to be + Participle II as a simple predicate and as a compound nominal predicate.
1. We have the Passive Voice (simple predicate) inthe following cases:
(a) when the doer of the action is indicated (as a rule).
They were thus introduced by Holly. (Galsworthy)
(b) when there is an adverbial modifier of place, frequency and, as a rule, of time.
Pravda is published in Moscow.
Good books are quickly sold.
The documents were signed a few minutes ago.
(c) when the verb is used in the Continuous or in the Perfect form.
Some efforts were even then being made to cut this portion of the wreck
away. (Dickens)
Ever since that, the cannon business has always been left to an adopted
foundling named Andrew Undershaft. (Shaw)
2. We have a compound nominal predicate in the following cases:
(a) usually when the verb to be is in the Present or Past Perfect Inclusive and the notional verb admits of the Continuous form.
Why dont you go and take the documents? They are ready. They have been
typed these two hours.
. .
Our things had been packed for two hours and we were impatiently pacing
up and down the room when at last we heard the sound of wheels.
,
, .
(b) when Participle II denotes a state of mind. In this case the predicate is compound even if there is an object introduced by the preposition by. This object does not denote the doer of an action but the cause of the state.
He was frightened by the remark.
He was oppressed by a sense of loneliness.
When these criteria cannot be applied the context itself helps to decide whether the predicate is a simple or a compound nominal one.
MODAL VERBS
1. Modal verbs are used to show the speakers attitude toward the action or state indicated by the infinitive, i. e. they show that the action indicated by the infinitive is considered as possible, impossible, probable, improbable, obligatory, necessary, advisable, doubtful or uncertain, etc. The modal verbs are: can (could), may (might), must, should, ought, shall, will, would, need, dare. The modal expressions to be + Infinitive and to have+ Infinitive also belong here.
Modal verbs are called defective because all of them (except dare and need) lack verbals and analytical forms (i. e. compound tenses, analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Passive Voice). Besides they do not take ‑s in the third person singular. They also have the following peculiarities:
(1) All of them (except ought and sometimes dare and need) are followed by the infinitive without the particle to.
(2) All of them (except dare and need) form the negative and the interrogative form without the auxiliary do.
(3) All the modal verbs have two negative forms a full one and a contracted one:
should not shouldnt
may not maynt
must not mustnt
need not neednt
dare not darent
Note the peculiar contracted form of some modal verbs:
cannot cant [kRnt]
shall not shant [SRnt]
will not wont [wqunt]
Can.
The verb can has two forms: can for the Present Tens and could for the Past Tense; the expression to be able which has the same meaning can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb can.
I cant explain it, said Therese. I cant explain anything I did today.
(Heym)
He jumped as high as ever he could. (Galsworthy)
How weakened she was I had not been able to imagine until I saw her at the
railway station in Chinkiatig. (Buck)
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Can expresses ability or capability, possibility, incredulity or doubt, astonishment.
1. Physical or mental ability.
Cousin Val cant walk much, you know, but he can ride perfectly. Hes going
to show me the gallops. (Galsworthy)
I dont know what Captain Loomis was doing there, but you can guess it
was about Thorpe. (Heym)
In this meaning it can be used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.
2. Possibility.
(a) due to circumstances:
I could not go to the theatre yesterday because I was busy.
Can I have a cup of tea, Miss? she asked. But the waitress went on doing
her hair. Oh, she sang, were not open yet. (Mansfield)
(Here the speaker does not ask the waitresss permission to have a cup of tea
but she merely wants to know whether the place is open and whether she can
have a cup of tea.)
You can have the book when I have finished it.
Can I see him? Yates asked, not very hopefully. Im sorry, no, the voice
was hesitant. We dont want him disturbed. (Heym)
Can I have my photo taken?
In the last three sentences can comes close to may expressing permission, but it does not so much indicate possibility depending upon the will of the person addressed (which is the essence of permission) as possibility depending on circumstances.
Well, Ill just wait a moment, if I may. You cant wait in the waiting-
room, Miss. I havent done it yet. (Mansfield)
(b) due to the existing laws:
The more she studied, the less sure she became, till idly turning the pages, she
came to Scotland. People could be married there without any of this nonsense.
(Galsworthy)
Every Soviet citizen can get medical treatment free of charge. You cannot
play football in the street (i. e. you have no right).
Can expressing possibility is used with the Indefinite Infinitive only.
N o t e. Could is often used in polite requests.
Could you give us a consultation tomorrow?
3. Incredulity, doubt, astonishment (they are closely connected).
In these meanings can is used with all the forms of the Infinitive in interrogative and negative sentences, though astonishment is expressed only in interrogative sentences.
No wonder her father had hidden that photograph... But could he hate Jons
mother and yet keep her photograph? (Galsworthy)
He , ...
- ?
That is not true! exclaimed Linton, rising in agitation. It cannot be; it is
incredible, it cannot be. (E. Bronte)
, , .
, , .
Can she be waiting for us?
, ?
She cannot be waiting for us.
He , . ?
Can (could) she have said that?
?
There could not have been such relentless unforgiveness. (Galsworthy)
He , .
Oh! cried Fleur. You could not have done it. (Galsworthy)
, , , .
Can she have been waiting for us all the time?
, ?
She cannot have been waiting for us all the time.
He , .
Confusion came on Jons spirit. How could she say such things, just as they
were going to part? (Galsworthy)
.. ,
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?
What could she have seen in that fellow Bosinney to send her mad?
(Galsworthy)
, ?
B r e t t. They saw us. I hope they didnt recognize us.
G e n e v r a. The car was going too fast. They couldnt have seen us. (Gow
and DUsseau)
In the last two examples we can easily replace could by can without any change of meaning.
Could with the Perfect Infinitive has almost the same meaning as can with the Perfect Infinitive, only the negation is not so categoric as with can.
If the action refers to the past, the Perfect Infinitive is mostly used. Other forms of the Infinitive are hardly ever used.
N o t e. The Russian negative-interrogative sentences of the type
? are rendered in English by complex
sentences:
Can it be that she has not read this book?
May.
The verb may has two forms: may for the Present Tense and might for the Past Tense. The expressions to be allowed and to be permitted, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing forms of the verb may.
May I come along? asked Karen. (Heym)
Jolyor thought he might not have the chance of saying it after. (Galsworthy)
You are to stay in bed until you are allowed to get up. (Du Maurier)
May expresses permission, uncertainty, possibility, reproach.
1. Permission.
May I use your phone? (Heym)
At any rate she murmured something to the effect that he might stay if he
wished. (Hardy)
As has been mentioned (see 2), can also often expresses permission but of a different kind: e. g. You may take the book means that the speaker gives the permission; You can take the book means that there are no conditions that prevent the person from taking the book.
May expressing permission is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive. Here we must observe the difference in the expression of permission and prohibition.
Whereas the former is always expressed by may, the latter has other ways of expression besides may not. Very often the negative answer to the question containing a request for permission is dont or must not.
May I read the letter?
No, dont, please.
Dont is less strict than may not, it is rather asking somebody not to do something than actually prohibiting something, which is expressed by may not.
Must not means that it is not the person who prohibits the action, but that there are facts, rules, or circumstances prohibiting it.
You must not smoke so much.
(For the difference between can and may in this meaning see 2, 2.)
2. Uncertainty as to the fulfilment of an action, state or occurrence, supposition implying doubt.
You may think youre very old, he said, but you strike me as extremely
young. (Galsworthy)
, , , ,
.
She was and remains a riddle to me. She may and she may not prove to be a
riddle to you. (Dreiser)
. ,
, , .
Not which follows may expressing uncertainty is always strongly stressed.
As is seen from the above examples this meaning of may is rendered in Russian by , .
Sometimes when Mr. de Winter is away, and you feel lonely, you might like
to come up to these rooms and sit here. (Du Maurlier)
, ,
, , .
The last example shows that might denoting uncertainty has no temporal meaning, i. e. it does not express uncertainty referring to the past. Practically speaking there is hardly any difference between may and might in this meaning.
Sometimes might expresses greater reserve or uncertainty on the part of the speaker than may.
Might instead of may is often used because of the sequence of tenses.
That was like her she had no foresight. Still who knew? she might
be right. (Galsworthy)
. ?
, .
Mrs. Page reflected that though Andrew looked hungry he might not be hard
to feed. (Cronin)
, , ,
, .
May denoting uncertainty is used with all the forms of the infinitive.
A Forsyte might perhaps still be living in that house, to guard it jealously.
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(Galsworthy)
It was then that his voice grew tired and his speech impeded. The knowledge
that he had entirely lost touch with his audience may have been the cause.
(Greene)
. , ,
, .
How long the silence lasted the Gadfly could not tell; it might have been an
instant, or an eternity. (Voynich)
For all I knew, she may have been waiting for hours.
When uncertainty is expressed the time of the action is indicated by the form of the infinitive and not by the form of the modal verb, as both may and might can refer to the present or to the past in accordance with the form of the infinitive. If the action refers to the past, the Perfect Infinitive is used.
3. Possibility due to circumstances.
May is used in this sense only in affirmative sentences. Can is also possible in this meaning.
In this museum you may see some interesting things.
You may see him every morning walking with his dog.
In this meaning it is generally used with the Indefinite Infinitive.
4. Reproach.
Only might is used in this meaning but not may.
You might lend me a razor. I was shaved this morning with a sort of bill-
hook. (Galsworthy)
When might is used with the Indefinite Infinitive it is rather a request made in the tone of a reproach, as the above example shows. When it is used with the Perfect Infinitive, it expresses reproach.
I realize now how you spent your days and why you were so forgetful. Tennis
lesson, my eye. You might have told me, you know. (Du Maurier)
Must.
The verb must has only one form. The expressions to have to and to be obliged to, which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing tense forms of the verb must.
And now I must go back to my social duties. (Voynich)
I felt that I had to have the air. (De la Roche)
Baring, because of the type of work in which he was engaged, had been
obliged to forego making friends. (Wilson)
Must expresses obligation, necessity, an urgent command or prohibition, and a supposition bordering on assurance.
1. Obligation, necessity.
(a) due to circumstances (in this meaning it is equivalent to have to and is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive in affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences):
He must write. He must earn money. (London)
This education is indispensable for whatever career you select, and it must
not be slipshod or sketchy. (London)
The absence of necessity is expressed by need not:
Must I go there to-morrow?
Yes, you must.
No, you neednt.
(b) arising out of the nature of man and consequently inevitable:
All experience tended to show that man must die. (Galsworthy)
2. A command, an urgent (emphatic) request or a prohibition. In this meaning it is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.
You must leave the room at once!
You must come to see me every vacation. (Voynich)
You must not speak to a prisoner in a foreign language, madam. (Voynich)
3. Probability or supposition.
Supposition bordering on assurance, almost a conviction. In this meaning must is used with all the forms of the Infinitive in affirmative sentences only. It corresponds to the Russian . If the action refers to the present the Indefinite Infinitive is used; if the action refers to the past the Perfect Infinitive is used.
Surely, they dont want me for myself. Then they must want me for
something else. (London)
, . , ,
- .
Oh, , think how he must be suffering!Poor man! (Webster)
, , , , , (
)! !
What a comfort you must have been to your blessed mother. (Dickens)
, , .
Is she still waiting? She must have been waiting for an hour.
? , .
In negative sentences supposition is expressed by means of the modal word evidently.
Evidently, she did not know my address.
Supposition referring to the future cannot be expressed by must. The modal word probably or the modal expression to be likely are to be used instead.
She is not likely to come so late.
She will probably come to-morrow.
(For the use of must in subordinate clauses after the past tense of the verb in the principal clause see Chapter XIX, Indirect Speech, 2, 8.)
Should1 and ought.
1 Should was originally the past tense of shall, but in the course of its development it has acquired new shades of meaning.
The modal verbs should and ought are treated together here as there is hardly any difference between them. Very often they are interchangeable.
I ought to have married; yes, I should have married long ago. (Poittsma)
There is, however, a difference in construction. Whereas should is followed by the infinitive without the particle to, ought is always followed by the to- infinitive.
When reference is made to the present or future, the Indefinite Infinitive is used.
In wartime a man should not part with his rifle. (Heym)
Its murder, and we ought to stop it. (London)
When reference is made to the past the Perfect Infinitive shows that the obligation was not carried out.
You should have been here last night when they brought back the DPs to
the mines, said Yates. (Heym).
She ought to have known that the whole subject was too dangerous to discuss
at night. (Galsworthy)
I know that I was weak in yielding to my mothers will. I should not have
done so. (London)
She had no nerves; he ought never to have married a woman eighteen years
younger than himself. (Galsworthy)
Should and ought are sometimes used with the Continuous Infinitive and the Perfect Continuous Infinitive.
You should be learning your lessons, Jack, and not talking with Mary.
You ought to be helping your mother with your salary and not squandering
your money.
He should have been trying to break through the isolation the hospital had set
around Thorpe, he should have been doing many things other than walking
along the Seine quay. (Heym)
Both should and ought express obligation, something which is advisable, proper or naturally expected.
1. Obligation, very often a moral obligation or. duty. In this meaning ought is more often used than should.
Martins hand instinctively closed on the piece of gold. In the same instant he
knew he oughtnt to accept. (London).
.
, .
I promised her if ever the time came when she needed me, to be her friend.
Promises of that sort should never be broken. (Meade)
, - , ,
. .
2. Advisability.
In this meaning should is more common than ought, as it always shows some personal interest whereas ought is more matter-of-fact.
You should be more careful. (London)
.
You ought to have Warmson to sleep in the house. (Galsworthy)
, .
3. Something which can be naturally expected.
Its the last of the Madeira I had from Mr. Jolyon... it ought to be in prime-
condition still. (Galsworthy)
,
... .
If its a story by Wodehouse it should be amusing.
, .
6. be + Infinitive.
be + Infinitive is a modal expression. Some of its meanings are close to those of modal verbs and expressions denoting obligation (must, shall, should, ought, to have + Infinitive).
This modal expression can be used in two tenses the Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite (was, were).
Dear Jim, I am to be shot at sunrise tomorrow. (Voynich)
They were to go to Spain for the honeymoon. (Galsworthy)
To be + Infinitive expresses a weakened order, an arrangement, possibility, something thought of as unavoidable. The ways of rendering this expression in Russian differ in accordance with its meaning.
1. An order which is generally the result of an arrangement made by one person for another, an arrangement which is not to be discussed.
In this case only the Indefinite Infinitive is used.
You are to go straight to your room. You are to say nothing of this to anyone.
(De la Roche)
.
.
Schlaghammer frowned. It was not up to him to judge Pettinger... but it was in
his province to interpret orders. He was to blast the entrances of the mine.
(Heym).
. ,
. .
2. An arrangement, or agreement, part of a plan.
In this meaning both the Indefinite and the Perfect Infinitive can be used; the Perfect Infinitive shows that the action was not carried out.
Im sorry, Major, we had an agreement I was to do the questioning here.
(Heym)
, , , .
We were to meet at the entrance of the theatre at a quarter to eight. (mutual
arrangement)
.
Have you seen him? Martini asked. No, he was to have met me here the
next morning. (Voynich)
? . , .
3. Possibility.
In this meaning the passive form of the Infinitive is used unless it is a question beginning with the interrogative adverb how. Here the meaning of the modal expression comes very close to that of the verb can.
For a long time neither was to be seen about their old haunts. (Dreiser)
,
.
How are they to know that you are well connected if you do not show it by
your costume? (Shaw)
, ,
?
And he knew that higher intellects than those of the Morse circle were to be
found in the world. (London)
, ,
, .
4. Something thought of as unavoidable.
Sally wished Morris could be on the same terms of easy friendliness with her
as he was with everybody else. But evidently, it was not tobe. (Prichard)
,
, . , ,
.
I went about brooding over my lot, wondering almost hourly what was to
become of me. (Dreiser)
,
, .
N o t e 1. Sometimes when it is used after the conjunction if it has the same
meaning as the verb to want.
If we are to remain friends you must tell me the truth.
N o t e 2. It should be borne in mind that the Russian questions
?, ? are rendered in English by the modal expression
What am I to do?
7. To have + Infinitive.
The modal expression to have + Infinitive is used in three tense forms: the Present Indefinite, the Past Indefinite and the Future Indefinite.
I have to get up at six every day.
When water was rushing through the tents and everybody had to sleep in wet
blankets, it was treated as a joke. (Prichard)
I shall have to take the pupils into the hills, as usual, and see them settled
there. (Voynich)
The negative and interrogative forms of this modal expression areformed with the help of the auxiliary do.
Did you have to walk all the way home?
I did not have to walk,I took a tram.
Only the Indefinite Infinitive Active and Passive can be used in this modal expression.
I had imagined we should have to hold a large house-party for the occasion.
(Du Maurier)
I wouldnt look through the letters disappointment had to be postponed,
hope kept alive as long as possible. (Greene)
To have + Infinitive expresses an obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. Its meaning is close to that of to be obliged. It is often rendered in Russian by , , .
Bing knew that if Willoughby demanded it, he had to give the report. (Heym)
, , , .
And if my father was fighting drunk sometimes he wouldnt let us into the
house so that we had to stay out all night. (Walsh)
, ,
.
Though both the modal expressions to be + Infinitive and to have + Infinitive express a shade of obligation or necessity, there is, a great difference in their meaning.
C o m p a r e:
As I was to be there at 5 sharp (part of an arrangement), I had to take a taxi
(necessity arising out of this arrangement).
, .
In colloquial English and especially in American English have, got + Infinitive is often used in the same meaning as have + Infinitive.
This modal expression is used in the Present Indefinite tense only.
Okay, well beat em to it. Dick, weve got to keep awake,weve got to
watch things and be ready. (Lindsay)
The negative and interrogative forms are formed without any auxiliary.
Have you got to do all this work yourself?
No, I have not got to work so much.
There is a tendency in Modern English to use got + Infinitive in the same meaning.
You can smile away till you split your cheeks, but you still got to do a days
work to earn a days wages, and apples dont grow on monkey-trees.
(Lindsay)
N o t e. Pay special attention to the difference between I have something to
tell you and I have to tell you something. In the latter case the speaker
expresses the necessity of telling something to somebody, whereas in the
former the verb to have preserves to a certain extent its meaning of possession
and the speaker merely states that he has something which he either wants or
must communicate to somebody. The difference in word order is caused by
the difference in the meaning of the verb to have. In the first case it is not a
modal verb, thus, have is a simple predicate, something is a direct object and
the infinitive is an attribute. In the second sentence have to tell is a modal
expression, so it is a compound verbal modal predicate and something is an
object to the infinitive.
Shall.
Shall is never a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.
It expresses determination on the part of the speaker, i. e. compulsion or order, threat or warning, promise.
As a rule shall as a modal verb is not translated into Russian, its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation.
1. Compulsion or strict order.
In this meaning it is always used with the second and third persons and has a strong stress.
P a u l a. Ive got to tell Mr. Tanqueray.
H u g h. By God, you shall do nothing of the sort. (Pinero)
. .
. , .
She shall go off tomorrow, the little artful creature, said Mrs. Sedley, with
great energy. (Thackeray)
, ,
.
In interrogative sentences shall is used in the first and third persons to inquire after the wish of the person addressed.
Shall Ishut the door, madam? (Dickens)
(Do you want me to shut the door?)
, ?
Shall he go there?
(Do you want him to go there?)
?
2. Threat or warning.
In this meaning it is also used in the second and third persons and with a weak stress.
Thats the last time! she cried. You shall never see me again! (Maugham)
! .
!
You shall repent of this neglect of duty, Mr. Gummer. (Dickens)
, , .
3. Promise.
It is also used with the second and third persons and with a weak stress.
Dont be afraid, Jane, I saw it was an accident. You shall not be punished.
(Ch. Bronte)
He , , , .
.
I shall make you happy, see if I dont. You shall do what you like, spend what
you like. (Thackeray)
, .
.
Will.
Will is hardly ever a purely modal verb. It generally combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.
The modal verb will expresses volition, intention on the part of the speaker, or insistence.
1. Volition, intention.
In most cases this meaning is rendered in Russian by emphatic intonation, but sometimes the verb is used. It is used with all persons but mostly with the first person.
What is this? Who is this? Turn this man out. Clear the office! cried Mr.
Fang. I will speak, cried the man. I will not be turned out... (Dickens)
? ? !
! . , !
. !
Besides, since happiness is irrevocably denied me, I have a right to get
pleasure out of life: and I will get it, cost what it may. (E. Bronte)
, ,
; , .
Tell Mr. Osborne it is a cowardly letter, sir, a cowardly letter I will not
answer it. (Thackeray)
, , , ;
.
Very often will is used after the conjunction if in conditional clauses where it retains its modal meaning, that of volition.
You may laugh if you will but I was sure I should see her there. (E. Bronte)
, , , .
The modal verb wilt is used in polite requests.
Will you have a cup of tea?
Will you give me a piece of bread, for I am very hungry? (Ch. Bronte)
N o t e. The modal verb will should not be confused with the auxiliary will
in American English where there is a marked tendency to use it with all the
persons.
2. Persistence referring to the present or to the future.
Dont tell me. But I will tell you, repeated Sikes. (Dickens)
He . , c.
She begins to act very strangely. She will not speak, she will not eat; finally
she dies. (Maugham)
. ,
, , .
It is also used in speaking about lifeless things when the speaker is annoyed at something and speaks about a thing or a phenomenon of nature as if it possessed a will of its own (there is an element of personification here).
Its no use trying to open the door, it will not open.
.
Would.
Would was originally the past tense of will in the same way as should was the past tense of shall. But while the latter has acquired new shades of meaning, would has preserved those of will. Thus it expresses volition, persistence referring to the past.
1. Volition.
In this meaning it is mostly used in negative sentences.
She was going away and would not say where she was going. (Dreiser)
, .
2. Persistence.
I asked him not to bang the door, but he would do it.
, .
Several times Eckerman tried to get away, but Goethe would not let him go.
(Maugham)
, ø
.
It is also used in speaking about lifeless things in the same way as will (see 9), but in this use would is more common than will.
...and that was all he could see, for the sedan doors wouldnt open and the
blinds wouldnt pull up. (Dickens)
... , ,
.
Dare.
Dare means to have the courage (or impertinence) to do something. In the negative it denotes the lack of courage to do something.
How dare you ask the little Kelveys into the courtyard, said her cold,
furious voice. (Mansfield)
The verb dare as well as need has some peculiarities which make it different from other modal verbs.
It is used both as a normal verb (taking the auxiliary do in the interrogative and negative forms, ‑s in the third person singular and the to -Infinitive) and as an anomalous verb (without any auxiliary in its interrogative and negative forms, without ‑s in the third person singular and without the particle to before the infinitive which follows it). Dare has two forms dare for the Present and dared for the Past.
Did he dare to strike me when I was down? (E. Bronte)
He did not dare to meet his uncle. (Kruisinga)
How dare you go out by yourself after the orders I gave you? (Shaw)
You dare address me in that tone! (Shaw)
Sometimes dare takes the auxiliary but is followed by the bare infinitive.
You know you didnt dare give the order to charge the bridge until you saw
us on the other side. (Shaw)
Dare is mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences. However, we often come across I dare say which has become a stock phrase and acquired a new meaning I suppose. Dare is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.
Need.
Need expresses necessity. It is mostly used in negative and interrogative sentences.
You neednt be in such a fright. Take my arm. (Shaw)
He . , .
N o t e. When need is used in the meaning of to be in want of it is treated
as a normal verb.
He needs a new pair of shoes.
Need has only one tense form the Present. In the same way as dare, need is used as a normal and as an anomalous verb; the latter is much more common in colloquial English.
One need to be careful. (Zandvoort)
He did not need to be told twice. (Zandvoort)
Why need he bother us? (Knuslnga)
I am here. You neednt be afraid. (Greene)
I need hardly say I would do anything in the world to ensure Gwendolens
happiness. (Wilde)
Need is used both with the Indefinite and with the Perfect Infinitive.
I suppose I neednt have made that observation. (Pinero)
, .
MOOD
Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
In Modern English we distinguish three moods:
(1) The Indicative Mood.
(2) The Imperative Mood.
(3) The Subjunctive Mood.
THE INDICATIVE MOOD
The Indicative Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a fact.
We went home early in the evening. (Dickens)
The Indicative Mood is also used to express a real condition, i. e. a condition the realization of which is considered possible.
If it rains, I shall stay at home.
If Catherine disobeys us, we shall disinherit her. (Eliot)
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD
The Imperative Mood expresses a command or a request. In Modern English the Imperative Mood has only one form which coincides with the infinitive without the particle to; it is used in the second person (singular and plural).
Be quiet and hear what I tell you. (Eliot)
Please put the papers on the table by the bed. (Hemingway)
In forming the negative the auxiliary verb to do is always used, even with the verb to be.
Hush! Dont make a noise! (Eliot)
Dont be angry... (Hemingway)
The auxiliary verb to do may also be used in affirmative sentences to make the request more emphatic.
But now, do sing again to us. (Eliot)
To make a request or an order more emphatic the subject expressed by the pronoun you is sometimes used. It is characteristic of colloquial speech.
Ill drive and you sleep awhile. (Hemingway)
N o t e. A command addressed to the third person singular and plural is
usually expressed with the help of the verb to let.
Let the child go home at once.
.
Let the children go home at once.
.
With the first person plural the verb to let isused to express an exhortation to a joint action.
Lets go and have some fresh coffee. (Mansfield)
.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
1. The Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb ispresented as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. The Subjunctive Mood is also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker, to real facts. (A detailed treatment of this use of the Subjunctive Mood is given in 16.)
In Modern English the Subjunctive Mood has synthetic and analytical forms.
I wish I were ten years older, I said. (Braine)
, .
I wish you would speak rationally. (E. Bronte)
, .
2. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood can be traced to theOld English period when the Subjunctive Mood was chiefly expressed by synthetic, forms. In Old English the Subjunctive Mood had a special set of inflections, different from those of the Indicative.
In course of time most of the inflections were lost and the difference between the forms of the Subjunctive and those of the Indicative has almost disappeared. However, in Modern English there are a few synthetic forms of the Subjunctive which have survived; they are as follows: the Present Subjunctive of all the verbs and the Past Subjunctive only of the verb to be.
The Present Subjunctive
| to be | to have, to know, to speak, etc. |
| I be he, she, it be we be you be they be | I have, know, speak he, she, it have, know, speak wehave, know, speak you have, know, speak they have, know, speak |
The Past Subjunctive
| to be | to have, to know, to speak, etc. |
| I were he, she, it were we were you were they were | _ |
I. T h e P r e s e n t S u b j u n c t i v e. In the Present Subjunctive the verb to be has the form be for all the persons singular and plural, which differs from the corresponding forms of the. Indicative Mood (the Present Indefinite). In all other verbs the forms of the Present Subjunctive differ from the corresponding forms of the Indicative Mood only in the third person singular, which in the Present Subjunctive has no ending ‑s.
The Present Subjunctive denotes an action referring to the present or future. This form is seldom used in Modern English. It may be found in poetry and in elevated prose, where these forms are archaisms used with a certain stylistic aim. It is also used in scientific language and in the language of official documents, where it is a living form.
Wretched is the infants lot,
Born within the straw-roofd cot;
Be he generous, wise or brave,
He must only be a slave. (Southey)
,
;
, ,
.
Though all the world be false, still will I be true. (Trollope)
, .
The Present Subjunctive also occurs in some set expressions.
Be it so!
! !
Suffice it to say that he soon came back.
, .
God forbid!
! !
Far be it from me to contradict you.
.
In American English the Present Subjunctive is used not only in the above mentioned cases but also in colloquial language.
Yates called the hospital and insisted that one of the doctors come to the
phone. (Heym)
, -
.
II. T h e P a s t S u b j u n c t i v e. In the Past Subjunctive the verb to be has the form were for all the persons singular and plural, which in the singular differs from the corresponding form of the Indicative Mood (the Past Indefinite).
N o t e. Occasionally the form was, which coincides with the form of the
Indicative Mood, can be found in the singular.
I know I am affectionate. I wouldnt say it, if I wasnt certain that I am.
(Dickens)
The Past Subjunctive is widely used in Modern English and occurs not only in literature but also in colloquial language.
The term Past Subjunctive is merely traditional as in Modern English it does not necessarily express a past action. In adverbial clauses of condition it denotes an unreal condition referring to the present or future. In other types of subordinate clauses it denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause; thus it may refer to the present and to the past.
If I were ill I should like to be nursed by you. (Bennett)
, , .
I want to go everywhere, I wish I were a gipsy. (Galsworthy)
. .
I wished he were less remote. (Du Maurler)
, .
3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) or shall (which is seldom used) and the infinitive of the notional verb.
Mr. Barkis... proposed that my pocket-handkerchief should be spread upon
the horses back to dry. (Dickens)
, .
Yates wished Bing would stop thanking him, but Bing went on. (Heym)
, ,
.
Whoever you may be, Sir, I am deeply grateful to you. (Dickens)
, , .
She lowered the blind and closed the shutters that he might not see
