A GRAMMAR
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
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1963
FOREWORD
The object of this book is to give a course of English grammar for students specializing in the English language.
The book includes Accidence, i. e. the parts of speech and morphological categories, and Syntax, i. e. the sentence and the parts of the sentence. The rules are illustrated by examples taken from English and American authors of the 19th and 20th centuries.
The material of the book has been used for many years in teaching students of the Pedagogical institute of Foreign Languages in Leningrad, and has thus been put to the test of practical work, in preparing the material for print the authors have cosiderably enlarged it.
Exercises on all topics treated in the manual are published in a separate issue, arranged in accordance with the chapters of the present book.
The authors wish to acknowledge their obligations to the teachers of the Department of Foreign Languages and the Philological Department of Leningrad University, as well as to the teachers of the Hertzen Pedagogical Institute and all the strangers, who have reviewed the book and made a number of valuable suggestions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction. Grammatical structure of the English language
Part I. ACCIDENCE
General classification of the parts of speech
Chapter I. THE NOUN
1. Definition
2. Morphological characteristics
3. Syntactical characteristics
4. Morphological composition
5. Classification
6. The category of number
7. The category of case
Chapter II. THE ARTICLE
1. General notion
Use of articles with common nouns
24. Class nouns
57. Nouns of material
811. Abstract nouns
Use of articles with proper nouns
12. Names of persons
13. Geographical names
14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines
15. Names of cardinal points
16. Names of months and days
17. Nouns modified by proper nouns
Use of articles with nouns in some set expressions
18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions
19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions
20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article
21. The use of articles with predicative nouns
22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition
23. The use of articles with nouns used in address
24. Place of the article
25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian
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Special difficulties in the use of articles
26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening
27. The use of articles with names of seasons
28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail
29. The use of articles with the noun town
30. The use of articles with the names of meals
31. The use of articles with names of languages
Use of articles with nouns modified by certain adjectives, pronouns and numerals
32. Most
33. Few, a few, the few; little, a little, the little
34. Two, the two; three, the three, etc.
35. The second, a second
36. Another, the other
37. Last, the last
38. Next, the next
39. A number, the number
Omission of the article
Chapter III. THE ADJECTIVE
1. Definition
2. Morphological characteristics
3. Spelling rules
4. Syntactical characteristics
5. Morphological composition
6. Classification
7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives
8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives
9. Substantivized adjectives
Chapter IV. THE PRONOUN
1. Definition
2. Classification
3. Personal pronouns
4. Possessive pronouns
5. Reflexive pronouns
6. Reciprocal pronouns
7. Demonstrative pronouns
8. Interrogative pronouns
9. Relative pronouns
10. Conjunctive pronouns
11. Defining pronouns
12. Indefinite pronouns
13. Negative pronouns
Chapter V. THE NUMERAL
1. Definition
2. Cardinal numerals
3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence
4. Ordinal numerals
5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence
Chapter VI. THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE
1. Definition
24. Morphological composition and use
Chapter VII. THE VERB
1. Definition
2. Morphological structure
3. Basic forms
4. Syntactic function
5. Transitive and intransitive verbs
6. Lexical character
710. Grammatical categories
Tenses in the Active Voice
The Indefinite form
The Present Indefinite
1. The formation of the Present Indefinite
2. The use of the Present Indefinite
The Past Indefinite
3. The formation of the Past Indefinite
4. The use of the Past Indefinite
The Future Indefinite
5. The formation of the Future Indefinite
6. The use of the Future Indefinite
The Future Indefinite in the Past
7. The formation of the Future Indefinite in the Past
8. The use of the Future Indefinite in the Past
The Continuous form
The Present Continuous
9. The formation of the Present Continuous
10. The use of the Present Continuous
The Past Continuous
11. The formation of the Past Continuous
12. The use of the Past Continuous
The Future Continuous
13. The formation of the Future Continuous
14. The use of the Future Continuous
The Future Continuous in the Past
15. The formation of the Future Continuous in the Past
16. The use of the Future Continuous in the Past
Verbs not used in the Continuous form
The Perfect form
The Present Perfect
17. The formation of the Present Perfect
18. The use of the Present Perfect
19. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect
The Past Perfect
20. The formation of the Past Perfect
21. The use of the Past Perfect
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22. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect
The Future Perfect
23. The formation of the Future Perfect
24. The use of the Future Perfect
The Future Perfect in the Past
25. The formation of the Future Perfect in the Past
26. The use of the Future Perfect in the Past
The Perfect Continuous form
The Present Perfect Continuous
27. The formation of the Present Perfect Continuous
28. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous
29.The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous
30. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive
The Past Perfect Continuous
31. The formation of the Past Perfect Continuous
32. The use of the Past Perfect Continuous
33. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous
The Future Perfect Continuous
34. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous
35. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous
The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past
36. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past
37. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past
The Passive Voice
1. The formation of the Passive Voice
2. The use of the Passive Voice
3. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice
4. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian
5. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language
6. The verb to be + Participle II
Modal Verbs
1. Definition
2. Can
3. May
4. Must
5. Should and ought
6. To be + Infinitive
7. To have + Infinitive
8. Shall
9. Will
10. Would
11. Dare
12. Need
Mood
The Indicative Mood
The Imperative Mood
The Subjunctive Mood
1. General notion
2. Synthetic forms
3. Analytical forms
4. The forms of the Indicative Mood used to express the same meaning as is expressed by the Subjunctive Mood
The use of the Subjunctive Mood
5. Simple sentences
6. Conditional sentences
7. Adverbial clauses of purpose
8. Adverbial clauses of concession
9. Adverbial clauses of time and place
10. Adverbial clauses of comparison
11. Predicative clauses
12. Subject clauses
13. Object clauses
14. Attributive appositive clauses
15. Attributive clauses modifying the noun time in the principal clause
16. Emotional use of the Subjunctive Mood
17. Ways of rendering the Subjunctive Mood in Russian
Chapter VIII. THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (THE VERBALS)
1. Definition
2. The characteristic traits of the verbals
The Participle
3. General notion
4. Double nature of the participle
5. Tense distinctions
6. Voice distinctions
7. Functions of Participle I
8. Functions of Participle II
9. Predicative constructions with the participle
10. The Objective Participial Construction
11. The Subjective Participial Construction
12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction
13. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction
14. Absolute constructions without a participle
15. Punctuation
The Gerund
16. General notion
17. Double nature of the gerund
18. Tense distinctions
19. Voice distinctions
20. Predicative constructions with the gerund
21. The use of the gerund
22. The gerund and the infinitive
23. The functions of the gerund
24. The gerund and the participle
25. The gerund and the verbal noun
The Infinitive
26. General notion
27. Tense and aspect distinctions of the infinitive
28. Voice distinctions
29. The use of the infinitive without the particle to
30. The functions of the infinitive
31. Infinitive constructions
32. The Objective-with-the Infinitive Construction
33. The Subjective Infinitive Construction
34. The for-to- Infinitive Construction
35. The Infinitive with the expressions to be sorry, to be glad
Chapter IX. THE ADVERB
1. Definition
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2. Morphological structure
3. Degrees of comparison
4. Classification
Chapter X. THE MODAL WORDS
1. Definition
2. Classification
3. Use
4. Modal words and adverbs
Chapter XI. THE INTERJECTION
1. Definition
2. Classification
3. Morphological composition
Chapter XII. THE PREPOSITION
1. Definition
2. Morphological structure
3. Classification
4. Prepositions, adverbs and conjunctions
5. Prepositions and postpositions
Chapter XIII. THE CONJUNCTION
1. Definition
2. Morphological structure
3. Classification
4. Coordinating conjunctions
5. Subordinating conjunctions
Chapter XIV. THE PARTICLE
1. Definition
2. Classification
Part II. SYNTAX
Chapter XV. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
1. Definition
2. Classification
34. Structure
Parts of the sentence
The principal parts of the sentence
The subject
5. Definition
6. Ways of expressing the subject
7. It as the subject of the sentence
The predicate
8. Definition
9. The simple predicate
10. The predicate expressed by a phraseological unit
11. The compound predicate
12. The compound nominal predicate
13. The predicative
14. The Objective Predicative
15. The compound verbal predicate
16. The compound verbal modal predicate
17. The compound verbal aspect predicate
18. Mixed types of predicate
Agreement of the predicate with the subject
19. General notion
20. Rules of agreement
21. Agreement of the predicate with the subject expressed by a syntactic word-group
The secondary parts of the sentence
The object
22. Definition
23. Ways of expressing the object
24. Kinds of objects
25. The direct object
26. The indirect object
27. The complex object
28. The cognate object
The attribute
29. Definition
30. Ways of expressing the attribute
31. The apposition
32. The close apposition
33. The loose or detached apposition
The adverbial modifier
34. Definition and classification
35. Ways of expressing the adverbial modifier
Detached (loose) parts of the sentence
36. Definition
37. The detached adverbial modifier
38. The detached attribute
39. The detached object
The independent elements of the sentence
40. Definition
41. Parenthesis
Sentences with homogeneous parts
Chapter XVI. WORD ORDER
1. General remarks
24. Inverted order of words
5. Position of the object
6. Position of the attribute
7. Position of adverbial modifiers
Chapter XVII. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
The compound sentence
1. General notion
2. Types of coordination
The complex sentence
3. General notion
4. Subject clauses
5. Predicative clauses
6. Object clauses
7. Attributive clauses
8. Attributive relative clauses
9. Attributive appositive clauses
10. The use of relative pronouns in attributive relative clauses
11. Adverbial clauses
12. Adverbial clauses of time
13. Adverbial clauses of place
14. Adverbial clauses of cause
15. Adverbial clauses of purpose
16. Adverbial clauses of condition
17. Adverbial clauses of concession
18. Adverbial clauses of result
19. Adverbial clauses of manner
20. Adverbial clauses of comparison
21. Polysemantic conjunctions
The compound-complex sentence
Parenthetical clauses
Chapter XVIII. THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
1. Definition
25. General rules
6. Tenses in English and in Russian
7. Tenses in object clauses
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8. Tenses in conventional direct speech
9. Tenses in attributive relative clauses and adverbial clauses of cause, result, comparison, and concession
10. Tenses in subject clauses and predicative clauses
Chapter XIX. INDIRECT SPEECH
12. General remarks
3. Indirect statements
4. Indirect questions
5. Indirect orders and requests
6. Indirect offers, suggestions, and advice
7. Indirect exclamations
8. Greetings and leave-taking
Chapter XX. PUNCTUATION
1. General remarks
The simple sentence
2. Homogeneous members
3. Detached members
4. Parenthetical words, groups of words, and clauses
5. Interjections
6. Nouns in address
The compound sentence
7. Coordinate clauses joined asyndetically
8. Coordinate clauses joined by copulative conjunctions
9. Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive conjunctions
10. Coordinate clauses joined by adversative conjunctions
11. Clauses joined by causative-consecutive conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs
12. Sentences containing direct speech
The complex sentence
13. Subject clauses
14. Predicative clauses
15. Object clauses
16. Attributive clauses
17. Adverbial clauses
18. Complex sentences consisting of two or more homogeneous clauses
19. Declarative non-exclamatory sentences
20. Sentences expressing a question
21. Exclamatory sentences
22. Unfinished sentences
INTRODUCTION
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
1. Languages may be synthetic and analytical according to their grammatical structure.
In synthetic languages, such as for instance Russian, the grammatical relations between words are expressed by means of inflections: e. g. .
In analytical languages, such as English, the grammatical relations between words are expressed by means of form words and word order: e. g. the roof of the house.
2. Analytical forms are mostly proper to verbs. An analytical verb-form consists of one or more form words, which have no lexical meaning and only express one or more of the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, and one notional word, generally an infinitive or a participle: e. g. He has come, I am reading.
The analytical forms are:
1. Tense and Aspect verb-forms (the Continuous form: I am writing, the Perfect form: I have written, the Perfect Continuous form: I have been writing, the Future Indefinite: I shall write, all the other forms of the Future; also the interrogative and the negative forms of the Present and Past Indefinite: Does he sing? He does not sing).
2. The Passive Voice: I was invited to the theatre.
3. The analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood: I should go there if I had time.
In all these analytical forms the form word is an auxiliary verb.
(For detailed treatment see chapters on the verb.)
3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
1. Endings:
-s in the third person singular in the Present Indefinite: speak s;
-s in the plural of nouns: table s;
-s in the genitive case: my brother s book;
-ed in the Past Indefinite of regular verbs: smok ed.
2. Inner flexions: man men; speak spoke.
3. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood: were, be, have, etc.
4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
A deviation from the ‑general principle of word order is possible only in special cases.
(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVI, Word Order.)
5. One of the marked features of the English language is the extensive use of substitutes. A word substitute saves the repetition of a word in certain conditions. Here belong one, that, do.
One replaces class nouns in the singular and in the plural:
Thanks for the compliment, if it is one.
The hours he spent with Ruth were the only happy ones he had, and they
were not all happy. (London)
That generally substitutes nouns, especially abstract nouns and nouns of material followed by an attribute, mostly introduced by the preposition of:
He (Martin) watched the easy walk of the other in front of him, and for
the first time realized that his walk was different from that of other men.
(London)
Almost every day thereafter Mrs. Skelton would go for a ride in her own
car or that of Castleman. (Dreiser)
Do substitutes verbs:
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You know your law better than I do. (Galsworthy)
Forgive me for speaking with brutal frankness, I only do so because I
care. (Alexander)
Part I
ACCIDENCE
