1) economics; 6) desire;
2) add; 7) resist;
3) care; 8) hard;
4) select; 9) rapid;
5) produce; 10) mix.
5. (, , , : ) , ) ).
6. , : , Continuous Perfect ; ; to be, to have; ; some, any, no :
1. Concrete has proved to be durable when made of good materials, well mixed, and properly cured.
2. For example, some cements will give better results in sea water than others.
3. No metal should project to the surfaces.
4. Concrete has poor elastic and tensional properties, but it is strong in compression.
5. Its tensile strength is only one-tenth of its compressive strength.
7. :
1. What kind of concrete must it be?
2. When has concrete proved to be durable?
3. What is the trouble of concrete work caused by?
4. What concrete requires special attention in the selection of the cement, aggregates, mixing, placing and curing?
5. What does the strength of plain concrete depend upon?
6. What is the strongest concrete?
7. What concrete hardens more rapidly?
(2-3 ).
(10-15 ).
.
5
1. :
Construction Works
The first houses were built for the purpose of protecting their owners from the weather and, therefore, were very simple a roof to keep off the rain or snow, and walls to keep out the wind.
The building erected now can be divided into two broad classifications: they are either for housing or for industrial purpose.
As far as the material is concerned, the building can be divided into stone (or brick), wood and concrete types. The brick is an artificial material made of clay then burnt to harden it. The natural stone (rubble masonry) is used for footing and foundations for external walls carrying the load. The buildings made of stone or brick are durable, fire-proof and have poor heat conductivity.
The tiers or levels which divide a building into stages or stories are called floors. These may be of timber but in stone buildings they are made of ferro-concrete details in great or small sizes.
The coverings or upper parts of buildings constructed over to keep out rain and wind and to preserve the interior from exposure to the weather, are called roofs. There should tie the walls and give strength and firmness to the construction.
Every building must be beautiful in appearance and proportional in various parts. The interior should be planned to suit the requirements of the occupants while the exterior must be simple without any excesses.
|
|
|
Any building should be provided with water, electricity, ventilation and heating system.
Getting water into the house is called plumbing. The plumbers have also to get the water out after it has been used. The first part of this problem is called water supply and the second one is called drainage or sewerage.
Almost everybody saw the construction of a building and followed its progress with interest. First the excavation is dug for the basement, then the foundation walls below ground level are constructed; after this the framework is erected and clothed with various finishing materials and protected by several coats of paint.
The part upon which the stability of the structure depends is the framework. It is intended for safety carrying the loads imposed. The floors, walls, roofs and other parts of the building must be carefully designed and proportioned.
The architect or designer must decide, what the size of the walls, the floors, the beams, the girders and the parts, which make up the framework, will be and how they will be placed and arranged.
Here are the main parts of a building and their functions.
Foundations serve to keep the walls and floors from contact with the soil, to guard them against the action of frost, to prevent them from sinking and settling which cause cracks in walls and uneven floors.
Floors divide the building into stories. They may be either of timber or may be constructed of a fire-resisting material. Walls are built to enclose areas and carry the weight of floors and roofs. The walls may be solid or hollow. The materials used for the walls construction can be brick, stone, concrete and other natural or artificial materials.
Roofs cover the building and protect it from exposure to the weather. They tie the walls and give strength and firmness to the structure.
Turnkey construction is the type of assistance in building different facilities. In this case the employer engages the contractor to design, manufacture, test, deliver, install, complete and commission a certain project and the contractor undertakes full responsibility for the project construction and commissioning.
The contractor then undertakes endeavors to conduct a survey and design work, as well as to work out basic and detailed engineering and supply equipment. As a rule, the contractors highly qualified specialists are made responsible for doing part or full construction works, carrying out installation, start-up and adjustment operations.
After the construction is completed the precommissioning starts, that is testing, checking and meeting other requirements, which are specified in the technical handbooks.
As soon as all works in respect of the precommissioning are completed and the project is ready for the commissioning, the contractor notifies the engineer (Project manager) with the message. The contractor begins the commissioning immediately after the engineer does the issue of the Completion Certificate.
The contractor carries out the guarantee test during the commissioning to make sure that the project will reach the designed performance.
Operational acceptance of the project takes place when the guarantee test has been successfully completed and the guarantees met. As a rule the contractor supplies spare parts so that the project could normally operate during the maintenance guarantee period.
|
|
|
Turnkey contracts are always long-term undertaking involving several parties, among them foreign and local subcontractors. They are usually won as a result of tenders where the bidders compete for the contract on the terms most favourable for the customer.
2. :
1) artificial material; 6) stability of the structure;
2) external walls; 7) fire-resisting material;
3) poor heat conductivity; 8) technical handbooks;
4) ferro-concrete details; 9) guarantee test;
5) water supply; 10) designed performance.
3. :
1) ; 6) ;
2) ; 7) ;
3) ; 8) ;
4) ; 9) ;
5) ; 10) .
