The development of a polysemantic word's meaning takes place as a result of transferring one real objects denomination onto another, based on the community of the respective objects features. Depending on the nature of common features, transference of denomination is subdivided into three types: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.
Metaphor is transference of denomination from one real object onto another due to the similarity of their particular features. Similarity may be found in diverse types of features of both primary and secondary denotations. We shall cite the examples of most widespread types of features that provide basis for the formation of metaphor.
Transference by similarity of color: Eng. iron wire iron-gray hair, Ukr. (gold-ware) (golden locks), (wax figure) (waxen complexion); Rus. (chocolate cream) (chocolate tan), (tin solder) (tinny stare). This type of transference is common for all the three languages.
Transference by similarity of shape: Eng. your arm arm of river, Ukr. o (wings of a bird) o (wings of an airplane), (bow-shaped overhead cover of a passage through the wall) (a decorative construction); Rus. (diminutive of head) (head of a child) (head of cabbage), (gold ring) (tram-line circle). The analyzed type of transference is also widespread in all the three languages.
Transference by similarity of location in space: Eng. ones nose nose of a car, Ukr. (nose of a person) (rostrum of a ship); Rus. (tail of an animal) (rear coaches of a train), (leg of a child) (leg of a table). This type of transference is widespread in all the three languages.
Transference by similarity of age and gender: Ukr. (mother of ones father or mother grandmother, Rus. ) (a woman of elderly age Rus. ), (aunt, Rus. ), (uncle, Rus. ). The above-described type of transference is typical of Ukrainian and Russian. Apparently, this can be explained by the fact that in these languages units of age and gender denomination are employed for attracting a persons attention, i.e. as forms of address. In English, the said function is performed by special units.
Transference by similarity of ideas as to mode of action: Eng. to lean (on a walking-stick), Ukr. ( ), Rus. Eng. to lean (on a weighty opinion, smb.s support), Ukr. ( , ), Rus. . A type of transference well-known to all languages.
Transference by similarity of functions: Ukr. (mercury barometer) (barometer of public opinion), ( ) (defence in soccer) ( ) (defence in the court). This type of transference is widespread in all the three languages.
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Transference by similarity of result: Eng. to break (a toy), Ukr. (), Rus. Eng. to break (old rules), Ukr. ( ), Rus. ; Eng. to open (a door), Ukr. (), Rus. Eng. to open (a concert), Ukr. (), Rus. . A type of transference well-known to all the three languages.
Transference by similarity of evaluation: Eng. a heart of gold, as good as gold, Rus. (noble person) (noble metal). A widespread type of transference.
Transference by similarity of associations: Eng. sweet chocolate sweet love, sweet sound, Ukr. (bitter taste) (bitter feeling), (sweet pastry) (sweet life); Rus. (bright colours) (bright person), (deep ravine) (deep/profound answer), (lazy person) (sloth, South African animal poorly adapted to walking on earth). The most widely used type of transference in all the languages.
Metaphor based on the similarity of associations is one of the events displaying the peculiarities of world perception, national culture, beliefs and ideas of native speakers. Nothing is more difficult to translate from one language into another than the associative metaphor. Metaphoric meanings function in every language, which means that likeness of various outward things in the surrounding world is realized by all the people. However, signs underlying the formation of brand-new meanings appear diversified in various languages, with discrepancies being observed even in closely cognate languages. For instance, the Russian term for one of the types of garment fasteners is (lightning). The words metaphoric meaning was formed on the basis of its primary meaning electric discharge in the air. The common features of its primary and secondary denotations are rapidity and shape of line. In the closely-related Ukrainian language, the same type of fastener is termed not , but (derived from snake, long-bodied reptile). English denominates the corresponding real object using the non-derivative word zip. In this case, transference of name has been effected due to the similarity of shape. Are there any universal metaphoric meanings, inherent to all languages? Solution of this issue has been the target of search for many scientists. An especially valuable contribution to the settlement of this problem was made by the English scientist Ullman. His studies reveal some universal types of metaphoric transferences, although he remarks that concurrence on the level of words is accidental. Universal types of metaphor include, for example, a synesthetic metaphor, which is formed when transferring features perceived by the sense organs into the realm of psychology: Ukr. (bitterness of taste) (bitter sensation causing the persons emotional suffering), (tasting sour) (sour expression of face), (golden, made of gold) (golden, i.e. very good temper), (soft couch) (mild temper), (iron detail) (iron temper). Universal are also the metaphor of orientation: Ukr. (left corner) (left-wing views), (right-hand side) (right-wing party); the anthropomorphic metaphor: Ukr. (hare) (timorous person), (rooster) (cocky boy), (goose) (unreliable, roguish person), and the meteorological metaphor: Ukr. (storm) (a vivid and intense outbreak of feelings).
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Metonymy is transference by contiguity of features of two real objects. Contiguity can also belong to different types: spatial, procedural, qualitative, temporal. We shall provide a few examples of metonymic transferences.
- Premises, section of space people abiding inside of it: Eng. my cabinet Cabinet of Ministers, Ukr. (spacious class-room) (class of graduates), (nice-looking yard) (he was met by the whole yard i.e. people gathered in the yard); Rus. (large lecture-hall/auditorium) (audience with good understanding), (roomy house) (united house, i.e. family). This type of transference is less popular in English than in Ukrainian and Russian.
- Material article manufactured from this material (or event associated with its usage): Eng. Gold, Silver, Iron age, Ukr. (silk) (to dress up in silks, i.e. luxuriously), Rus. (silver) (silverware department in a shopping centre). A widespread type of transference.
- Process, action result of action: Eng. work, research, Ukr. (the work continues) (the work, i.e. paper, has been submitted for defence); Rus. (composition of poems) (the composition is published). The most widespread type of transference in all the three languages.
- Feature bearer of this feature: Ukr. (distance from the sea level upwards) (an elevated spot); Rus. (steepness; noun derived from adjective steep) (steep slope). This type of transference is not very common for the English language.
- Action place of action: Eng. going out, leaving, Ukr. Rus. (going out/exit) (flights into the outer space were conducted several times) (the exit is closed).
- Person in a certain state of mood thing expressing this state of mood: Eng. bitter man bitter experience, Ukr. Rus. (sad person) Rus. (sad song). A widespread type of transference.
A variety of metonymy is called synecdoche transference of name from a part to the whole or from the whole to a part: Ukr. (cherry) (cherry-tree). This type of transference is less widespread in the English language, since it uses an additional word tree for denoting the species of tree bearing the respective fruit: apple-tree, cherry-tree.
Apart from the lexical-semantic variants, the semantic structure of a polysemantic word hosts many nuances of meaning. In the dictionaries, the latter are usually separated with a sign //. The term nuance also stands for a motivated meaning that preserves especial affinity to the motivating one, for instance, sad: 1. Full of sadness (sad person) // 2. Expressing sadness (sad glance). However, the scientists offer no precise criteria for demarcating the independent meaning from its nuances, which causes discrepancies not only among different dictionaries, but also within the bounds of one.
Polysemy is widespread in all languages. This phenomenon is believed to evidence the languages tendency to economize on linguistic means, since the same linguistic sign is utilized for the expression of a different content. In belletristic and publicistic speech, polysemy serves as a tool for creating figurativeness, expressiveness or a comic effect.
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Questions for self-examination:
1. Which types of name transference enable the development of polysemy?
2. Ground the definition of metaphor and supply examples of its various types.
3. Give a few examples of the universal types of metaphor.
4. Ground the definition of metonymy and supply examples of its various types.
5. What does the specificity of synecdoche consist in?
6. Why is the phenomenon of polysemy widespread in all languages?
7. How can you explain the differences between the types of transference in various languages?
Tasks
1. Analyse of the semantic structure English and Ukrainian words and compare.
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