ics for discussion
1. Discuss the differences between two classes of sounds vowels and consonants in terms of articulation and auditory effect. Compare the articulation bases of Russian and English.
2. Point out the principles of classification of English consonants. What articulatory features of consonants do you consider relevant?
3. Give precise account of all factors that can influence the quality of the vowel. Discuss the principles of classification of vowels. Explain the distinction between relevant and irrelevant characteristics of the vowels
4. The phoneme theory & different views of it. Explain the correlation between the phoneme and its set of actual speech sounds. Illustrate it by examples. Can you prove that the phoneme is a unity of three aspects: material, abstract and functional? Why none of them can be ignored?
5. Comment on the phenomenon of variation in a language system, types of variation. Give a brief overview of allophonic modifications of sounds.
6. Survey the problems of phonological analysis. Explain what methods are applied, discuss the problematic & controversial points in the process of establishing the phonemic inventory of English. Explain the difference between distinctive and non-distinctive articulatory attributes of the phoneme.
Literature
1. , .., , .. : . - . ../ .. , .. . : , 1980. . 17 - 47
2. , .. . : - . ../ . . [ .] 2- .. - .: , 1980. - .71 120, 134 - 182
3. , .. . : . / .. , .., .. [ .] .: ,2001. . 21 -79
Key terms: vowels, consonants, sonants, the articulation basis of a language, a phoneme, an allophone, variation, idiolectal variation, allophonic variation, diaphonic variation, individual variation, assimilation, accommodation, reduction, the distributional method of phonological analysis, the semantic method of phonological analysis, a minimal pair, a phonological opposition, phonologically relevant (distinctive) features, phonologically irrelevant (non-distinctive) features.
Tasks and exercises:
1. Say whether these statements are True or False:
- Vowels are speech sounds in the articulation of which there is no obstruction, the muscular tension is evenly spread through the speech organs, the air stream is strong and they are based on voice.
- Consonants are speech sounds in the articulation of which there is an obstruction, the muscular tension is concentrated at the place of obstruction, the air stream is strong and they are mostly based on noise.
- Sonants are speech sounds in the articulation of which there is no obstruction, the air stream is weak and they are based on voice.
- Sonants like consonants are always non-syllabic.
- [ m, n, l, w, r] are all English sonants.
- The phoneme is the smallest indivisible language unit.
- Allophones can distinguish lexical and grammatical meanings of words.
- The phoneme is real, material, subjective.
- The phoneme is an abstraction from and generalization of existing speech sounds.
- The phoneme is a functional unit though it is meaningless.
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2. Fill in the blanks with suitable terms or definitions:
We single out two main classes of sounds in English, they are (1) and (2) . Vowels are speech sounds in the articulation of which (3) . Consonants are speech sounds in the articulation of which (4) . (5) occupy an intermediate position because(6) .
Billions of sounds exist in real communication. Phoneticians have established a limited number of sound types in a language. These abstract sound types are called (7) , they may be defined as (8) . Their speech variants or (9) may be defined as (10) . The phoneme is a dialectal unity of the following aspects (11) , (12) , (13) .
Living languages exist in constant changing or (14) , that may be looked upon as (15) or as (16) . The reasons for phonetic variation are (17) , (18) , (19) , (20) . The main types of phonetic variation are (21) , (22) , (23) , (24) . Allophonic modifications are the following (25), (26) , (27).
3. Prove, please, that [ t ] and [k ] are two different phonemes.
Prove, please, that [ n ] and [ŋ ] are two different phonemes.
Prove, please, that [e ] and [ I ] are two different phonemes.
Prove, please, that in the following row of words; tower, state, port [t -aspirated], [t- less aspirated], [t-non-aspirated] are allophones of one and the same phoneme [t].
Prove, please, that in the following row of words; power, spoon, cap [p -aspirated], [p- less aspirated], [p-non-aspirated] are allophones of one and the same phoneme [p].
Prove, please, that in the following row of words; car, skate, park [k -aspirated], [k- less aspirated], [k-non-aspirated] are allophones of one and the same phoneme [k].
Prove, please, in the following row of words: sea, seed, seat the durational variants [i: ], [i], [I ] are allophones of one and the same phoneme [ i: ].
4.. In the following extracts you will get acquainted with different definitions of the phoneme given by some Russian and foreign linguists.
1) Give a brief overview of each of them and set out the information in the form of the table below:
| Linguist | Approach |
| L.V. Shcherba | A materialistic view |
| Etc. | Etc. |
2) Try to classify the conceptions into groups according to philosophical background.
3) Which conceptions do you consider acceptable? Give your reasons.
(. ) : . , , , , - . , , , , , . . , , , , . , - ; . , , , , ...
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, , , , () . : , , . , , . : , .
. . . ., 1963. . 351.
, , , .
. . . ., 1970. . 38.
, ... . , , , , ...
,' , , , ...
,
. . , 1933. . 57, 117, 119.
, . . ( ) , , , .
. . . ., 1960, . 42-45.
, ( ).
: , ...
, . . , ...
. ? , , .
In describing the sound-system of any language it is necessary to distinguish between speech sounds and what are called phonemes.
A speech-sound is a sound of definite organic formation and definite acoustic quality which is incapable of variation.
A phoneme may be described roughly as a family of sounds consisting of an important sound of the language (generally the most frequently used member sound of that family), together with other related sounds which take its place in particular sound-sequences or under particular conditions of length or stress or intonation...
The K's in the English words keep, cool, call are three distinict sounds articulated at different parts of the palate; but they are regarded as belonging to the same phoneme, since the use of these different varieties of [k] is dependent solely upon the nature of the adjoining vowel...
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On the other hand, sounds of the [n] and [rj] types belong to separate phonemes in English, because the use of the two sounds is not dependent upon neighbouring sounds in words, [n] can occur in position which [rj] can also occupy, e.g. in the terminations -in, -ing.
The most frequent sound of a phoneme may be called its principal member or norm. It is usually the sound which would be given if a person with unstudied pronunciation were asked to say the sound by itself. The other sounds belonging to the phoneme are called subsidiary members. The term allophone is used to denote a particular member (principal or subsidiary) of a phoneme.
Phonemes are capable of distinguishing one word a language from other words of the same language. There is an English word [sin] and another English word [sin]...
The distinctive elements of language, i.e. the elements which serve to distinguish one word from another are the phonemes (not the sounds). The distinction between two phonemes is significant i. e. capable of distinguishing one word from another; the distinction between two sounds is not necessarily significant. Different sounds which belong to one phoneme do not distinguish one word of a language from another; failure on the part of
the foreigner to distinguish such sounds may cause him to speak with a foreign accent, but it will probably not make his words unintelligible.
Jones D. An Outline of English Phonetics. Cambr., 1976. P. 189-199.
Bloomfield defines phonemes as minimum units of distinctive sound features, and as the smallest units which make a difference in meaning. He has said too that the phonemes of a language are not sounds, but merely features of sound which the speakers have been trained to produce and recognize in the current of actual speech sound.
W.F. Twaddel, on the other hand, has expressed the view that phonemes have no real existence either physically or mentally, but are merely abstractional fictitious units
Jones. The Phoneme. Its Nature and Use. Cambr., 1967. P. 216.
5. Observe the following pairs of words and discuss the relevant features of the opposed sounds: torn dawn, ten men, ton none, time, lime, tool pull, tin bin, take sake, teal veal.
