(Max Ringelmann; Kravitz & Martin, 1986) , . , , , , , . , , : , . (Alan Ingham, 1974) , , . , . 15-1, . , , 18 % , , .
. 15-1. . , , ( Ingham, Levinger, Graves, Peckham, 1974).
, c (Bibb Latane, Kipling Williams and Stephen Harkins, 1979; Harkins & others, 1980) , . , , , , , . , , - . , , , .
, , . , . , . , , , , (Harkins, 1981). ? . , , , , , . (Hardy & Latane, 1986).
(John Sweeney, 1973), , . , ( ), , , , . .
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160 (Karau & Williams, 1993) , , . , , , , . ( , . .) . , (Harkins & Jackson, 1985; Kerr & Bruun, 1981). , . , (Mullen & Baumeister, 1987). , : , ; , .
. , . , , (Williams & others, 1981). , , , . , , , - (Williams & others, 1989).