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1
1. , (Personal,
Possessive and Indefinite Pronouns).
2. , (Present, Past and
Future Simple Tenses).
3. 1 (First Conditional Sentences).
4. (Participle I).
5. (Present and Past
Continuous Tense).
6. (Present and Past Simple Tenses of the
English Verb) (Passive Voice).
7. (Degrees of Comparison).
8. (Modal verbs and their
equivalents).
1. , :
1. Tell () about your travelling.
a) they; b) their; c) them; d) her
2. This town is very green because there are a lot of trees in (ero) streets.
a) him;. b) his; c) its; d) it
3. (Ha) country is one of the largest countries in the world.
a) we; b) our; c) their; d) her
4. Peter the Great was a great reformer, (eo) reforms changed Russia
greatly.
a) its; b) he; c) him; d) his
5. Nick is telling () about his work.
a) them; b) we; c) our; d) us
6. She has bread.
a) few; b) little; c) many; d) much
7. Me friend speaks English ().
a) many; b) a few; c) few; d) a little
8. Are there... places of interest in your town? Yes, there are...
a) any; b) no; c) some; d) something
9. He saw... interesting in this museum.
a) anything; b) somewhere; c) nothing; d) anywhere
10.... rang you up.
a) somewhere; b) anybody; c) something; d) somebody
11.... building of this city attracts thousands of tourists.
a) some; b) any; c) something; d) anything
12. Unfortunately... knew the history of this ancient region.
a) nobody; b) somebody; ) anybody; d) nothing
2. , Present Simple, Past Simple Future Simple Tenses .
1. Agriculture and manufacturing (to provide) hundreds of new goods for
consumers every year.
2. The prices for fuel (to be) very high next year.
3. Consumers (to pay) for some extra services, such as medicine, education,
transport.
4. What data the economist(to analyze)last year?-He (to analyze)changes in
prices for chocolate.
5. How the company (to distribute) its goods in many Russian cities?
6.Mining industry (to provide) resources for manufacturing branches of
economy.
7. You (to like) Professor Smiths lectures on economics, I am sure.
8. My parents(not/to study)economics at the University they (to study)
medicine.
3. , 1 (First Conditional).
1. If the governments policy (to be) proper, employment (to be) higher.
2. If Russia (to improve) conditions of scientists work, there (to be) great progress in science.
3. When the enterprise (to work) more profitably, it (to compete) with other enterprises more successfully.
4. When the factory (to produce) more goods, it (to require) more resources.
5. Before the manager (to make) a decision, he (to study) all the data.
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6. If the price of the good (not to raise), the company (not to make) any profits.
7. If the economists (not to use) the new method of analysis, they (not to make) a correct model.
8. After prices (to rise), the demand for these goods (to fall).
4.
a)
(Present Participle).
1. rocessing industries
2. growing demand
3. developing relationships
4. increasing productivity
5. growing scarcity
6. working plants
7. changing buyers behaviour.
b)
(Present Participle).
1. onsumers choosing the cheapest goods
2. economies coping with resources scarcity
3. economists predicting new tendencies
4. industries belonging to the primary sector
5. companies having high profits
6. data showing differences between regions
7. economists dealing with labour markets.
5. , Present Past Continuous Tenses .
1. The factory (to employ) new workers now.
2. They (to study) the economic situation in the area.
3. I (not/to learn) French, I (to learn) English.
4. They havent sold the products, they (to sell) them now.
5. The two companies (to complete) in the market.
6. We (to apply) new technology.
7. You (to work) at the report on a macroeconomic problem?
8. The consumption of fruit and vegetables (to increase) in our country.
9. Unemployment (to grow) at the moment?
6. , (Present and Past Simple Passive Voice) .
1.The goods (to sell) at a high price.
2. Consumers behaviour (to study) by a group of economists.
3. Such a situation (to predict) by economists long ago.
4. Not many bank services ( to provide) for clients in the Soviet Union.
5. New workers(to employ) by the company every year?
6. Medicine (not / to study) by school students but economics (to study) at
school.
7. Goods for consumers (to provide) by industryand agriclture.
8. Goverment investments (to require) by this plant last year.
7. (Degrees of Comparison), .
1. The central regions of the country are (industrialized) than northern parts.
2. Living conditions in some Latin American countries are (bad) than in
developing Asian countries.
3. It was (easy) to make a decision than economists thought.
4. This is (important) stage in the processing of the product.
5. Nowadays mining plants use (modern) machiens than ten years ago.
6. Bananas require (hot) climate for growth than potatoes.
7. Consumers were interested in (cheap) goods of (high) quality.
8. Sometimes the work of a farmer is (difficult) than that of an industrial
worker.
9. Food, clothes and a house are(necessary) things for man`s life.
10. Angola is known as a (little) developed country.
8. can, could to be able to .
1. Even at present computers... (not) translate from one foreingn language
into another without mistakes.
2. by means of computer programmes economists... make more complex
economic models in future.
3. The firm was closed as it... (not) to pay its debts.
4. Small nations... ensure their economic security only by effective
cooperation with other nations.
9. , :
1. competition, to compete, competitor, competitive
2. to apply, applied, application
3. industry, industrial, industrialized
4. to adjust, adjustment
5. scarce, scarcity, scarcely
6. to educate, education, educative
7. to consume, consumer, consumption
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8. to introduce, introduction
10. . , :
a) onsumer; b) buyer; c) customer; d) client; e) clientele; f) purchaser;
1. A person who buys something (a formal word).
2. The people, especially rich people, who regularly use a shop or restaurant
or the services of a professional person.
3. Someone who buys goods from a particular shop, restaurant, or company.
4. Someone who is buying something expensive such as a house, company, or painting, usually from another person.
5. Someone who pays for services or advice from a professional person or
organization.
6. A person who buys and uses goods and services.
11. .
What is Economics?
It is difficult to give a full and accurate definition of economics, but it is possible to indicate what problems economists are interested in. They are factors that affect prices of goods and services and also resources necessary to produce them. Economists are also interested in sellers and buyers behaviour in the market, in the relationship between price system and market mechanism.
Now economics is more complex. There are three main approaches to economics: misroeconomics, macroeconomics and development economics. There are also several specialized areas of study. Among them are money economics, international economics, labour economics, industrial economics, agricultural economics, growth economics, mathematical economics, etc.
Like many other sciences, economics uses models to understand economic problems. A model often helps an economist to make correct predictins. The economist usually folows several rules when he makes a model of economic behaviour.
First, real life is complex and it is not possible for any economist to include all the details in a model. So, a model is an abstraction from real life. A model usually includes only essential elements and relationships of a particular economic situation.
Second, if an economist has two different models of one phenomenon, he always chooses the model that predicts the results of a particular phenomenon more accurately.
Third, although models are helpful in economic analysis, an economist always studies the actual economic situation before he makes decisions.
It is not enough to make models, it is also necessary to collect and study actual data in order to know how accurate a model is.
I. .
What problems are economists interested in?
What are three main approaches to economics?
What specialized areas of economics do you know?
Why do economists use economic models/
Why is it not possible to include all the details in a model?
What does a model usually include?
Which of the models does an economist always choose?
Why is it necessary for an economist to collect and study actual data?
II. .
1. market analysis
2. labour economics
3. labour market study
4. goods and services prices
5. growth economics problems
6. actual economic situation details
7. consumer behaviour
8. future prediction
9. growth mechanism
10. agriculture and manufacturing relationship
11. mineral resources prices
12. agricultural product price growth
13. area development
14. trade growth prediction.
2
1. (Participle II).
2. (Present Perfect and Past SimpleTenses).
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3. .
4. ,
(Present Simple, Past Simple, Present Continuous and Present Perfect
Tenses).
5. (Passive Voice).
6. (Complex object).
7. (Modal verbs and their equivalents).
8. (Prepositional Phrasal Verbs).
1. .
, , (Past Participle).
to develop market, to use labour, to study data, to reach progress, to sell foodstuffs, to increase population
1.2. .
1. services provided by the company
2. models made by economists
3. relationships studied by them
4. trade developed by these two countries
5. crops grown in the area
6. income distributed among many people
2.. , (Past Simple) (Present Perfect) .
1. The family income (not/to rise)last year.
2. I (to find) already the necessary data in the Internet.
3. In the 1960s, mexico (to make) great progress in the development of its
light manufacturing industry.
4. We (to see) just a documentary film on TV about Brazil which (to
make) by the BBC a year ago.
5. Some African countries (not/to solve) the problem of education for all
population yet, but they (to reach) a success in some industries recently.
6. The world population (to increase) in recent years because African and
Asian population (to grow) very fast.
7. The economic growth in China (to be) the highest lately.
8. The living standard of population (to fall)last year?
9. We (to see) the latest figures about the income per capita in the country,
they (to publish) in a newspaper yesterday.
10. Since India (to become) an English colony, English (to be) an official
language in the country and most Indians (to speak) it for many years.
3.
) : just, already, never, yet, recently, lately .
1. The role of the service sector has increased...
2. Microeconomics has... studied the problems of the whole country`s economy.
3. Economists have not given a full definition of economics...
4. Economists have... developed three main approaches to economics.
5. Economics has... used models successfully to analyze some difficult economic problems.
6. Most manufacturing industries have used intensive technologies for
processing resources...
) :
My friend has worked on the problem of consumers behaviour in the market...
1) 2001 ; 2) ; 3) ; 4) ; 5) ; 6) ; 7) ; 8) ; 9) .
4. Present Simple, Past Simple, Present Continuous Present Perfect .
1. They (to go) to the Hermitage last week.
2. They (to b) in London twice this year.
3. When your friend (to return) from the south? He (to return) yesterday.
- You (to go) to the station to meet him? No, I, I (to be) too busy.
4. She (to visit) her parents today. Usually she (to visit) them once week.
5. The traveller (to check in) at the hotel now.
6. The receptionist just (to make out) the bill.
7. Sometimes he (to travel) without booking room in advance.
5. , (Present Perfect) (The Passive Voice) .
1. Prices of electricity (to raise) already twice this year.
2. Applied fields of economics (to teach) to students of different universities.
3. How much money (to give) by the World Bank to the developing
countries?
4. A high living standard (not / to reach) in most developing countries yet.
5. How the degree of competition (to influence) by the increase in the
number of firms in the industry?
6. No changes (to make) to distinguish the new product from identical
products.
6. , Complex object:
6.1. to .
: I want her to help me. ( , .)
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1) I expect you to come in time.
2) I advise you to enter the institute.
3) I find your story to be very interesting.
4) I know him to be a good student.
6.2. to .
: I saw him enter the house. ( , .)
I saw him entering the house. ( , .)
1) They didn't feel the train start.
2) Nobody noticed him go out.
3) I heard her playing piano.
4) I saw him driving the car.
6.3. to .
: Don't let them play in the street.
( .)
1)My mother made me go on this trip.
2) I let him go early as he had done his task.
3) Please let me know the results of your exam as soon as possible.
4) He had them leave the building.
7. can, could, may, must .
1. If there are a few firms in an industry, the change in the behavior of one firm... influence other firms.
2.... developing countries enter the European Union? No, they....
3. The firm... increase its profits by means of new materials or technologies.
4. Any crisis in the economy of the USA... seriously influence the economies of oter nations.
5. Any country... follow some rules in international trade.
6.... Russia supply its population with necessary amounts of gas and petrol? Yes, it...
7. British farmers... (not) ensure the required quality of meat when there was an infection among animals a few years ago.
8. You... have a special licence to import or export exotic animals.
8. , , :
account for - ,
make use of -
refer to - ,
deal with - ( .-. .-.); ()
call for - , (.-. .-.);
face with - ( .-.)
1.The successes of these firms are largely accounted for by automation.
2.The following examples were made use of.
3.These measurements were referred to at the conference.
4.The various topics are well dealt with in this book.
5. In this case the military action by the United States was not called for.
6. The government was faced with the problem of how to limit energy
cosumption.
9. , .
| to manage; manageable; management; manager; manageress; managerial |
1.They reserved the right to make managerial decisions.
2. "What you need is advice from your bank manager.
3. I wish you could manage the time to come and to talk to us.
4. Private banks are being nationalized, and are to be managed with
workers' participation.
5. They are part of my management team.
6. The baby can be greatly influenced by the parents' management.
7. She has been working as the manageress of a bookshop.
8. It is perfectly manageable task to tackle systematically.
10. .
Development Economics
Development economics is an important branch of economics which considers specific problems of Third World countries. These countries are given a variety of different names such as underdeveloped counries, les developed countries(LDCs), and developing counries(DCs). All these terms contrast third world countries with first world countries which are called developed or industrialized. Economies of Western Europe, North America, and Japan belong to this type.
The growth of Third World countries was especially great in the 1950s and 1960s. Most of these countries were a part of the colonial system and they were controlled by Western Europe. Many countries got political independence after World War II, but they have not become independent economically yet. For example, India has beeen an independent country since 1945.
The most advanced Asian and South American countries are sometimes called newly industrialized countries (NICs). Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea have reached a great success in the development of their light manufacturing industries recently. They have already greatly increased the exports of such goods as shoes, clothes, and electronics all over the world. Brasil and Mexico have also increased their share in the world market mainly by means of foodstuffs exports.
It is important understand that Third World countries are not uniform. Each country has its economic problems, and it is nesessary for each country to develop its own policy in order to make progress.
However, developing countries are distinguished from develped nations by the following commmon characteristics: lower average income per capita; low labor productivity; low level of education; high mortality rate; fast population growth; low living standards, etc. Some developing countries have all of these characteristics; others have only some of them.
I.
1. What problems does development economics study?
2. How are Third World countries named?
3. What countries are known as developed countries?
4. When was the fastest growth of Third World countries?
5. Are developing countries independent politically or economically?
6. What countries belong to newly industrialized countries?
7. Are all developing countries uniform in their development?
8. What are the common characteristics of all developing countries?
II. , .
1. the company, exported, to European countries, before, its, never, has, goods
2. such a high level, the NICs, as now, reached, in trade, never, have
3. their goods, to Africa, yet, exported, they, have
4. have, new machines, we, the productivity, already, increased, of
5. reached, most African countries, the living standarts, have not, yet, of developed countries
6. the European Union, Lithuania, a member of, recently, has become
III. : advanced, variety, dependence, to reach, uniform, foodstuffs, since, recently/lately,`to distinguish, independence, average, per, population, labour productivity.
1. Brazil has recently increased the exports of..., one of which i coffee.
2. As the education of... is not very good in developing countries, the... is
low.
3. There is a wide... of problems which Third World countries have in their
economies, but economic... is common for most of them.
4.This factory uses the most... technologies in processing agricultural
products into foodstuffs.
5.He has been interested in the problems of development economics... he
started work there.
6.Less developed countries are... from each other by means of analysis of
their... income... capita.
7.Developing countries got political... more than 50 years ago, but they have
not... a high level of living standarts of developed countries.
8.Newly industrialized countries have... the productivity of light
manufacturing industry...
9.The development of different areas of the country is not.... Some areas
are more developed, others are less developed.
3
1. (Participle I and Participle II).
2. (Past Simple
and Past Perfect Tenses).
3. (Simple and Perfect Tenses of the English
Verb) (Active and
Passive Voices).
4. (Modal verbs).
5. (Sequence Tenses).
6. (Subjunctive Mood):
2 (Second Conditional).
7. (Active Infinitive and
Passsive Infinitive).
8. (Gerund).
1. (Participle I and Participle II).
1. rices (affecting/affected) by market forces
2. farms (raising/raised) wheat and other crops
3. livestock (raising/raised) in southern regions
4. enterprises (working/worked) successfully
5. recently (buying/bought) machinery
6. supply of agricultural products (depending/depended) on weather conditions
7. a book (dealing/dealt) with problems of education economics
8. consumption (growing/grown) every year
9. differences in buyers behaviour (considering/considered) by the economist.
2. , (Past Simple and Past Perfect). .
1. That was the first time they had been out of the country.
2. News had travelled about the world long before newspapers appeared.
3. My father lived in the house that had come to him from his sister.
4. By the time police arrived, the man had left.
5. Until this year the firm had enjoyed 16 years of uninterrupted profit
growth.
6. The loss from discontinued operations was twice as high as the
company had predicted.
7. By this time Peter I had conceived the idea of developing Russian
tobacco production.
8. By 1940 the number of federal workers had almost doubled.
3. (Present and Past Simple, Present Perfect Tenses) (Active and Passive Voices) .
1. The European Economic Union (to form) in 1958.
2. A new policy of advertising goods (to introduce) by the firm
recently.
3. Not much money (to require) for the company to start business a
month ago.
4. The OPEC (to include) many oil producers, however, it (not/to
supply) all the worlds oil.
5. The market for computers (to increase) since the prices for old
models (to fall).
6.The government (not/to cope) with the problem of high
unemployement yet.
7. Russia (to know) as an important oil producer in the world market.
8. Global energy crisis (not/to take) place for the last five years.
9. What industrial economics (to deal) with?
10. Consumption of foodstuffs (not/to rise) lately.
4. must, should, have to to be to .
1. The company... advertise the new product to attract more buyes.
2. The firm... provide quality certificates for all its goods.
3. The government... stimulate the production of necessities and it...
prevent the increase in prices.
4. The company... pay taxes on its profits.
5. The new government polisy... ensure more jobs for population.
6. The trade policy of the Japanese government in the 1950s... ensure rapid
economic growth.
5. , (Sequence Tenses) .
: He said: I have not had lunch with a friend for ages.
He said that he had not had lunch with a friend for ages.
1. I'm going to work in Spain next year.
2. I work for a small publishing company.
3. I'm their marketing manager.
4. The company has opened an office in Barcelona.
5. It's been very successful.
6. I've been chosen to run a new office in Madrid.
7. I have to get back to work now.
8. I don't have much time to enjoy myself.
9. I hope my friends will come and visit me in Madrid.
10. We didn't have much time for sightseeing.
11. I went there last week with my secretary.
6. II (Second Conditional).
1. If demand for goods always matched production, there would be no need
to store goods.
2. Many investors would be richer if the future really were foreseeable.
3. My enterprise is doing fine and if it were not for one or two technical
problems we would be operating perfectly.
4. If California were a country, its gross domestic product would be the
world's seventh largest.
5. If I stood for the presidential elections I wouldn't get through the first
round.
6. If the sale of alcohol was banned in Europe there would be fewer road
accidents.
7. If cheap labor were the key to company location, then Vietnam or
Somalia would be manufacturing meccas. They are not.
7.
7.1. , .
1. To influence state affairs as well as getting a wage increase, must be their
goal.
2. It was rare to find a British engineer fluent in a foreign language.
3. It will be harmful to our interests to hasten the events.
4. It costs a lot to become a great man.
7.2. , .
1. He asked to be shown the document.
2. She claimed to have known him before he became the Government's civil
defense chief 2 years ago.
3. The present report sets out to consider the broad aspects of continuing
education.
4. He refused to be bothered with details.
7.3. , .
1. I'll go there at once so as not to be late.
2.To remain competitive he cannot raise prices.
3. To understand the present one has to know the past.
4. To maintain a decent standard of living and at the same time slow
the skyrocketing of total energy use, there are three things we can do.
7.4. , .
1.You must define the task to be done.
2. The first thing to consider is temperature.
3. Company efforts to demoralize and divide the strikers continue.
4. There are relatively fewer people of working age to pay Social
Security taxes.
8. , (Gerund).
1. He suggested our opening talks.
2. This experiment needs checking up.
3. We insist on the documents being sent immediately.
4. Improvements in health and medicine have resulted in people living longer.
5. These measures have discouraged fund managers from becoming active in their markets
6. They have little interest in cultivating their own market.
7. Being an expert in a given field is becoming more and more difficult.
8. You cannot have radical change without someone losing out.
9. They worked very hard with a view to completing the experiments in time.
10. This failure was due to the designer's having been careless.
9. .
Applied Fields of Economics
There is a basic theory and facts in economics, in which all economists are interested. However, economics has some main applied fields that deal with specific topics, such as industrial economics, agricultural economics, economics of energy, economics of education, labour economics, etc.
Industrial organization and structure are studied by industrial economics which also analyzes markets for manufactured goods as well as policies of various enterprises. The degree of concentration and barriers against new competitors in the| market have already been analyzed by industrial economics for such important branches of economy as mining, gas, and oil industries, etc. The behaviour of firms and companies in an industry is influenced by the structure of the industry. Both profits and losses in any industry are affected by the behaviour of firms and companies engaged in the industry.
The economics of energy is known as another important field of applied economics closely connected with industrial economics. A lot of energy has been used by the modern economy in recent decades. Farms, factories, plants, transportation as well as families have greatly increased the consumption of various sources of energy since new modern equipment and technologies were introduced.
In the past, wood and coal were used as the main sources of energy. Then, these sources were replaced by gas and oil in most I industries. However, in the 1970s energy sources became scarce and there was a rise in energy prices. Since that time serious adjustments have been made by industrial economies in order to cope with the energy scarcity.
For the last few decades the problems of energy economics have been discussed by specialists and governments in many countries. Regular meetings are held by the OPEC formed in order to regulate oil prices.
.
OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exhorting Countries OEK (Op )
I. .
1. What topics do applied fields in economics deal with?
2. What does industrial economics study?
3. What influences profits and losses in any industry?
4. Why is economics of energy closely connected with industrial
economics?
5. What were the main sources of energy in the past?
6. Why were adjustments made in most industries in the 1970s?
7. How are prices for oil regulated now?
II. : t d1 with; etitor; lied; various; loss; recent; to cope with; to engage; closely connected; scarcity; to influence; profit; an adjustment; equipment; a consumption; an enterprise; a competition; a degree; a rise.
1. The economics of energy with industrial economics.
2. Labour economics such problems as employment, unemployment, education etc.
3. Agricultural economics as one of the fields is very important for countries with a large agricultural sector.
4. Governments in developing countries try the problem of economic dependence on developed countries.
5. There is a great of qualified specialists such as teachers, doctors and mechanics in agricultural areas.
6. The behaviour of a monopolist greatly the price for the industrys products.
7. Sometimes government are necessary to protect domestic producers from foreign .
8. There is a strong among large companies in the world market.
9. The of price control is low in this country.
10. Any manager studies the and of his company before he makes decisions about its work.
11. There are manufacturing as well as agricultural in this area.
12. universities and laboratories have been invited by the government to work at this project. Now very many qualified specialists are in this work.
13. The in of oil products has increased their price.
14. A lot of new has been bought by the factory in years.
4
1. (Participle I and Participle II).
2. (Simple, Continuous and Perfect Tenses of
the English Verb).
3 (Simple, Continuous and Perfect)
(Passive Voice).
4. (Modal verbs and their
equivalents).
5. C (Sequence of Tenses).
6. (Subjunctive Mood):
3 (Third Conditionals).
7. (Absolute participial construction).
8. (Gerund).
9. Phrasal Verbs.
10. (Complex subject).
1. (Participle I and Participle II) .
1. The country (following / followed) the policy of selfsufficiency should rely only on its domestic resources.
2. Enterprises (manufacturing / manufactured) final goods get higher profits than enterprises which only export resources.
3. The government policy (restraining / restrained) trade cannot ensure prosperity of such a country.
4. Protective tariffs (introduced / introducing) by the government last month may only lead to conflicts in foreign trade.
5. Recently (increasing / increased) influence of monopolies can be restrained by special government laws.
6. Universities (maintained / maintaining) high requirements to their students are recognized for their better education.
2. (Tenses of the English Verb) .
1. Lynne was singing / had sung as she was cleaning the windows.
2. It gets / is getting colder and colder every day.
3. Joe was happy. He was winning / had won first prize in the competition.
4. Martha is finding / has found a new job. She is starting next week.
5. Rob was opening / opened the box and looked inside.
6. The plane leaves / has left at four o'clock. We must be at the airport by
two o'clock.
7. Carol had broken / was breaking her arm, so she couldn't write for six
weeks.
8. Sam is a very interesting person. He knows / has known all kinds of
unusual facts.
9. We had stayed / stayed in a hotel by the sea last summer.
10.They had stood / were standing outside when the results were
announced.
3.
