1.
, () . , ( , ).
- a, , :
a = n / n .
a . (a > 30 %) , , , , ; NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2.
(a < 3 %) : , , , , (, , ); , -, d -, f - (u(OH)2, Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3, ). .
a , , .
, . K + + , , K :
K = [ K+] [A] / [ KA] = K .
K , . K , . , K (3) = 1 . 105, K (23) = 4,5 . 107, , , .
. :
34 + + 24- K 1 =7,5.103;
24- + + 42- K 2 = 6,3.108;
42- + + 43-- K 3 = 1,3.1012.
K = K 1 K 2 K 3.
, , K 1 > K 2 > K 3. , , , .
2.
- , , (). . :
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D = c ; D = m; D = m; = RT.
ֳ . , , . . : (0,2 l) = 1,81, (0,02 l) = 1,96. ̳ a : a = -1/ n -1, n , .
1. , 8 NaOH 1000 2, 100,184 . (2) = 0,516 .
ʼ:
1. ?
D t = m; m = ni . (1000/ m -) = . 1000/ m -,
= (D t . m - . M (NaOH): ( . 1000 . m (NaOH) = (0,184×100×40):(0,516×1000×8) = =1,78.
³: = 1,78.
3 .
,
+ +
, a, a , (1 a). :
K = 2a2/(1 a)
. ³ , , K . , a (a 0) K = a2 α = K , , = , a . .
2. 0,1 0,001 . K (3) = 10−5.
ʼ:
:
α(0,1 ) = = = 10−2 = 0,01.
α(0,001 ) = = = 10−1 = 0,1.
³: α(0,1 - 3) = 0,01, α(0,001 - 3) = 0,01.
4 . .
1923 . ¢ .
, - . . , .
(, ) (), .
. , .
. - 䳺 䳿. , , (D , D , D , ) , .
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¢ () - () (a). - , ¢ . ¢ :
a = fC,
f - . , , f - . a = C. a , .
. , .
m() z.
m = 1/2( 1 z 12 + C 2 z 22 + + C n z n2)
, m , m .
f , . , f £ 0,01 / lg f = -0,5 z + . z - Öm.
f .
, 䳿 , 䳿, .
5. -
- - , , 57,6 :
Ѳ +N = NѲ + 2; D = -57,53
N3 + = N3 + 2; D = -57,61
, - :
+ + 2.
, , .
:
AgNO3 + HCl AgCl¯ + HNO3;
Ag2SO4 + CuCl2 2AgCl¯ + CuSO4.
:
Ag+ + Cl AgCl¯.
, . , - , 䳿 , , , .
2Ѳ + 23 Ѳ + 2 + 2;
2+ + 32 2 + 2;
Ni(NO3)2 + 6NH3 [Ni(NH3)6](NO3)2;
Ni 2+ + 6NH3 [Ni(NH3)6]2+.
3. () 䳿 .
¢:
: CuSO4 + NaOH Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4;
: Cu+2 + SO42 + Na+ + 2OH Cu(OH)2 ¯+ 2Na+ + SO42;
: Cu+2 + 2OH Cu(OH)2 ¯.
6.
1. . (1887) . , , +, . , , , , . , . - ʼ + + 2. , .
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, (), (, ) .
2. ( , 1923). . ³ 10000 , , , . ֳ .
, - ( ) . - , . :
1. Ѳ, H2SO4, .. NaOH, KOH;
2. :
HSO4 H+ + SO42, HPO42 H+ + PO43;
Cl + H+ HCl, OH + H+ H2O.
3. :
NH4+ NH3 + H+, H3O+ H2O + H+;
NH3 + H+ NH4+, H2O + H+ H3O+.
- , , :
+ +.
, . , H3O+, HSO4 - , H2O SO42. - , , .
. :
2 + + ;
3 3 + +.
, , . .
, . . , Ѳ , . , .
( ). ,
K (3) = 105, K = -lg(105) = 5;
K (NH4OH) = 105, K = 5.
, ó, ( 㳿 ).
7.
, a = 1,8 109. , 䳺 ¢.
:
2 + + (1)
, . ( ), - ( ). ó 3+ . 3+ .
(1). = [H+] [OH] / [H2O].
(2) = 1000:18 = 55,56 /; [H+] = [OH] = CM × a = 55,561,8×109 = 107 /.
a , [H2O] = const;
[H2O] = [+]]OH] = 1014 = Kw - .
w .
, - . , -, - . , , . , :
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[H+] = 1014 / [OH]; [OH] = 1014 / [H+].
8.
+ ʼ . 1909 . ,
= − lg [H+].
, . = 7. < 7, > 7.
, 0 3 , 4 6 ; 810, - = 11...14.
. , , (, , , , ). - -.
4. , 4·10−3 /.
:
= −lg[H+] = −lg(4·10−3) = −lg4· − lg10−3 = −0,6 + 3 = 2,4.
³: 2,4.
5. - = 10,8.
:
1. ?
+ = 14; = 14 − 10,80 = 3,2.
2. - ?
= −lg[H−]; −lg[H−] = 3,2;
, [H−] = 6,3110−4 /.
³: - 6,3110−4 /.
6. 0,17 . 3, 1,7510−5.
:
1. α −?
α = ; α = = = 10−2.
2. [+] −?
3 ↔ 3− + +;
[+] = α× (3); (3) = (3) = 0,17 .
[H+] = 0,17·10−2 = 0,17·10−2 /.
3. −?
= −lg[H+] = −lg 0,17·10−2 = 2,77.
³: 2,77.
7. 0,01 , K = 1,7710−5.
ʼ:
1. a(NH4OH) −?
NH4OH ↔ NH4+ + OH−; [OH−] = a n, − ,
a , n , ( n =1).
a = , a = = = 0,042.
2. [OH−] −?
[OH−] =10−2·0,042·1 = 0,42 ·10−3 /,
3. pH −?
pOH = −lg [OH−] = 3,7; pH + pOH = 14; pH = 14 3,7 = 10,3.
³: = 10,3