FINAL TEST. SYLLOGISM
1. Basic laws of logic.
2. Argumentation rules and mistakes.
CONCEPT
A. In each of the following sentences, replace any boldfaced words with more abstract ones, and any italicized with more concrete ones (based on David Kelley. The Art of Reasoning). Name the logical operations. Diagram the sets of concepts.
1. The tall stranger whirled around and dashed his drinking implement against the fireplace.
2. So the elephant has turned westward, said the inspector. However he will not escape, for my men are scattered all over that region (Mark Twain, The Stolen White Elephant)
3. She took out a jar, and, looking around for a plate, found half of one by the door. These things she carried out to the porch steps, where she sat down. (Toni Morrison, Beloved)
4. About suffering they were never wrong
The Old Masters: how well they understood
Its human position... (W.H. Auden, Museé des Beaux Arts)
5. In secret we met
In silence I grieve,
That thy heart could forget,
Thy spirit deceive. (Lord Byron, When We Two Parted)
. Each of the following passages proposes a system of classification. Identify the concepts, and note any points at which the passages fail to make genus-species relationships clear (based on David Kelley. The Art of Reasoning).
The human species, according to the best theory I can form of it, is composed of two distinct races, the men who borrow, and the men who lend. (Charles Lamb, Essays of Elia)
Q. What is the difference between turtles, tortoises and terrapins?
o Turtles, tortoises and terrapins all belong to a group of four-legged reptiles that have hard outer shells, scaly skin, and horny beaks. They are in the order Chelonia or Testudinata. Generally, turtles live in salt water; those that live on land are called tortoises. A few edible fresh-water turtles are called terrapins. (New York Times, January 6, 1987)
C. Analize the classifications given in the poem below. Define their principles and state whether the classifications are valid.
Finally my Hiawatha
Tumbled all the tribe together,
('Grouped' is not the right expression),
And, as happy chance would have it
Did at last obtain a picture
Where the faces all succeeded:
Each came out a perfect likeness.
Then they joined and all abused it,
Unrestrainedly abused it,
As the worst and ugliest picture
They could possibly have dreamed of.
'Giving one such strange expressions -
Sullen, stupid, pert expressions.
Really any one would take us
(Any one that did not know us)
For the most unpleasant people!'
(Hiawatha seemed to think so,
Seemed to think it not unlikely).
All together rang their voices,
Angry, loud, discordant voices,
As of dogs that howl in concert,
As of cats that wail in chorus (Lewis Carroll. Hiawathas Photographing)
FINAL TEST
Analyze the abstract from the novel by Lewis Carroll:
Express your opinion on the given variant of applying the Least Common Multiple Rule to books.
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Define the scope and the content of the concepts BOOK, MIND and THOUGHT.
Diagram the set of concepts SCIENCE, WRITTEN SCIENCE, THOUGHT-OUT SCIENCE, according to the main idea of the abstract.
One neednt be a Doctor, I said, to take an interest in medical books. Theres another class of readers, who are yet more deeply interested -
You mean the Patients? she interrupted, while a look of tender pity gave new sweetness to her face. But, with an evident wish to avoid a possibly painful topic, one neednt be either, to take an interest in books of Science. Which contain the greatest amount of Science, do you think, the books, or the minds?
Rather a profound question for a lady! I said to myself, holding, with a conceit so natural to Man, that Womans intellect is essentially shallow. And I considered a minute before replying. If you mean living minds, I dont think its possible to decide. There is so much written Science that no living person has ever read: and there is so much thought-out Science that hasnt yet been written. But, if you mean the whole human race, then I think the minds have it: everything, recorded in books, must have once been in some mind, you know.
Isnt it rather like one of the rules in Algebra? my Lady enquired. ( Algebra too! I thought with encreasing wonder.) I mean. If consider thoughts as factors, may we not say that the Least Common Multiple of all the minds contains that of all the books; but not the other way?
Certainly we may! I replied, delighted with the illustration. And what a grand thing it would be, I went on dreamily, thinking aloud rather than talking, if we could only apply that Rule to books! You know, in finding the Least Common Multiple, we strike out a quantity wherever it occurs, except in the term where it is raised to its highest power. So we should have to erase every recorded thought, except in the sentence where it is expressed with the greatest intensity.
My Lady laughed merrily. Some books would be reduced to blank paper, Im afraid! she said. (Lewis Carroll. Silvie and Bruno)
PROPOSITION
A. Put each of the following statements into standard categorical form and identify the form (A, E, I, or O).
1. No Civil War picture ever made a nickel (Irving Thalberg to Luis B. Mayer, advising him not to make Gone with the Wind)
2. Some books are undeservedly forgotten; non are undeservedly remembered (W.H. Auden, Apothegms)
3. He that speaks much, is much mistaken (Benjamin Franklin, Poor Richards Almanack)
4. All the pretty things put by
Wait upon the childrens eye,
Sheep and shepherds, trees and crooks
In the picture story-books. (Robert Luis Stivenson, Picture-books in Winter)
B. Analyze the abstracts from Venetian Merchant by William Shakespeare, define their logical structure. Make the formulae paying attention to the logic connectors.
1. PORTIA. You must take your chance,And either not attempt to choose at all,Or swear before you choose, if you choose wrong,Never to speak to lady afterwardIn way of marriage; therefore be advis'd. (William Shakespeare. Venetian Merchant) 2. PORTIA. Go draw aside the curtains and discoverThe several caskets to this noble Prince.Now make your choice.PRINCE OF MOROCCO. The first, of gold, who this inscription bears:'Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire.'The second, silver, which this promise carries:'Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves.'This third, dull lead, with warning all as blunt:'Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath.'PORTIA. The one of them contains my picture, Prince;If you choose that, then I am yours withal. (William Shakespeare. Venetian Merchant) 3. (Flourish of cornets. Enter the PRINCE OF ARRAGON, PORTIA, and their trains)PORTIA. Behold, there stand the caskets, noble Prince.If you choose that wherein I am contain'd,Straight shall our nuptial rites be solemniz'd;But if you fail, without more speech, my lord,You must be gone from hence immediately.ARRAGON. I am enjoin'd by oath to observe three things:First, never to unfold to any oneWhich casket 'twas I chose; next, if I failOf the right casket, never in my lifeTo woo a maid in way of marriage;Lastly,If I do fail in fortune of my choice,Immediately to leave you and be gone. (William Shakespeare. Venetian Merchant) 4. PORTIA. If you had known the virtue of the ring,Or half her worthiness that gave the ring,Or your own honour to contain the ring,You would not then have parted with the ring.What man is there so much unreasonable,If you had pleas'd to have defended itWith any terms of zeal, wanted the modestyTo urge the thing held as a ceremony?Nerissa teaches me what to believe:I'll die for't but some woman had the ring. (William Shakespeare. Venetian Merchant)C. Find out whether the formulae are true or false if all the variables are true. Illustrate the underlined part with the proposition of your own.
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~A^((Bv~C)→(D^E))
((A^B)↔(~C^D)) v̇E
A^((Bv(C↔~D))→E)
(~AvB)^(Cv̇(D→~E))
(A→(v̇~C))^(DvE)
FINAL TEST
Make the formulae of the complex propositions (you may choose any ten of the listed below). Diagram the set of the underlined concepts.
1. If every one who is sane can do Logic and no lunatic s are fit to serve on a jury, then your son s cannot do Logic or they cannot serve on a jury. (based on Lewis Carroll)
2. Only if my saucepan s are the only things I have that are made of tin and none of them are of the slightest use, then if you dont give me any saucepans as a present, Ill find all your present s very useful. (based on Lewis Carroll)
3. If I listen when you speak to me
And share your ins and outs,
If I smile your affection s and
Endure your angry bout s,
Then the hours that I spend on you
Bring treasures most sublime;
Theres one thing that can buy your love
The price of love is time. (Papa Talbert. The Price of Love)
4. Only raise your hand when
You want to sharpen your pencil
Or go to the bathroom;
Repeat every ten minutes. (Bruce Lansky. How to Torture Your Teacher)
5. If we argue, scream and fight,
Thats an altercation;
If later we apologize,
Thats reconciliation;
And all these action s added up
Make civilization. (Shel Silverstein. Ations)
6. When the dark hawberries hang down and drip like blood
And the old mans beard has climbed up high in the wood
And the golden bracken has been broken by the snows
And Jesus Christ has come again to heal and pardon,
Then the little robin follows me through the garden,
In the dark days his breast is like a rose. (Iris Murdoch. A Year of Birds. December)
7. It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife. (Jane Austen. Pride and Prejudice)
8. She was at last captured by the English, tried by the Church and burned as a witch, the French made little or no effort to save her. (Amabel Williams-Ellis. A History of English Life)
9. Dame Partelot will not love Chantecleer any more if he goes on being afraid, so he at last cheers up and flies down off the perch as usual, and proudly roam s up and down the yard. (Amabel Williams-Ellis. A History of English Life)
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10. If the tale about the monkey s paw is not more truthful than those he had been telling us, we shant make much out of it. (W.W. Jacobs. The Monkeys Paw)
11. All pudding s are nice and this dish is a pudding, or if no nice thing s are wholesome then this pudding is too rich for me. (based on Lewis Carroll)
12. My Sorrow, when shes here with me,
Thinks these dark day s of autumn rain
Are beautiful as day s can be;
She loves the bare, the withered tree;
She walks the sodden pasture lane. (Robert Frost. My November Guest)
13. All my son s are slim or all gluttons, who are children of mine, are fat; and if no daughter of mine takes any exercise and no child of mine is healthy who takes no exercise, then my daughter s are glutton s. (based on Lewis Carroll)
14. From childhood s hour I have not been
As others were; I have not seen
As others saw; I could not bring
My passion s from a common spring. (Edgar Allan Poe. Alone)
15. The old lady pulled her spectacles down and looked over them about the room; then she put them up and looked out under them. (Mark Twain. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer)
16. Neither boy spoke; if one moved, the other moved but only sidewise, in a circle; they kept face to face and eye to eye all the time. (Mark Twain. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer)
17. If the bill comes to more I shall leave my watch and say that that I shall come back and pay later. (W. Somerset Maugham. The Luncheon)
18. If a seaman came to stay at the inn, the captain stood behind the curtain on the door of the parlour and looked at him for a long time before he came. (R. L. Stevenson. Treasure Island)
19. If Rosemary wanted to shop, she went to Paris; if she wanted to buy flowers, her car stopped at the perfect shop in Regent Street. (Katherine Mansfield. A Cup of Tea)
20. He crack s his knuckles when hes bored,
He whistle s when he walks,
He snaps his fingers when he sings
And when hes mad he squawk s. (Bruce Lansky. My Noisy Brother)
SYLLOGISM
A. Put each of the following statements in the standard form of categorical syllogisms; identify the terms and the mood. Determine whether the syllogism is valid or invalid (based on David Kelley. The Art of Reasoning).
1. Some democracies are tyrannies, because any state that ignores human rights is tyrannical, and some democracies do just that.
2. We should never confuse music and noise: music is an orderly progression of sounds, noise is disorderly one.
3. Some international conflicts arise from honest motives, but no aggressive war arises in that way. Hence some aggressive wars are not international conflicts.
4. That man must be tremendously ignorant: he answers every question that is put to him. (Voltaire, Dictionnaire Philosophique)
5. He who would rejoice loudly of his victories cannot expect to thrive in the world of men, for he who rejoices over victory does so at the expence of other men (Tao Te Ching)
B. Determine the type of the hypothetical syllogisms (modus ponens or modus tollens). Put them in standard form and determine whether they are valid (based on David Kelley. The Art of Reasoning).
1. I knew I would be late if I didnt hurry, but I did hurry, so I wasnt late.
2. Robin wasnt really embarrassed, because the blotch she gets whenever shes embarrassed wasnt there.
3. It is only about the things that do not interest one, that one can give a really unbiased opinion; and this is no doubt the reason why an unbiased opinion is always absolutely valueless. (More Letters of Oscar Wild, ed. Rupert Hart-Davis)
4. Had we but world enough, and time,
This coyness, lady, were no crime...
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but at my back I always hear
Times winged chariot hurrying near... (Andrew Marwell, To His Coy Mistress)
C. Analyze the arguments, identify their structure, and determine whether the arguments are valid (based on David Kelley. The Art of Reasoning).
1. Since happiness consists in peace of mind, and since durable peace of mind depends on the confidence we have in 5the future, and since that confidence is based on an understanding of the nature of God and the soul, it follows that true happiness requires that understanding. (Gottfried Leibnitz, Preface to the General Science)
2. Touchstone:... Wast ever in court, shepherd?
Corin: No,truly.
Touchstone: Then thou art damned...
Corin: For not being in court? Your reason.
Touchstone: Why, if thou never wast at court, thou never sawst good manners; if thou never sawst good manners, then thy manners must be wicked; and wickedness is sin, and sin is damnation. Thou art in a parlous state, shepherd. (William Shakespeare, As You Like It)
D. Evaluate the following inductive generalizations. Find some confirming and disconfirming instances (based on David Kelley. The Art of Reasoning).
1. Women are only interested in clothes.
2. Men are only interested in one thing.
3. Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
4. People who own homes take better care of them than do people who rent.
E. Analyze the situations, define the type and structure of the syllogisms. Formulate the premises and the conclusion, evaluate the latter.
1. I had three encouragements - 1st, a smooth, calm sea; 2ndly, the tide rising, and setting in to the shore; 3rdly, what little wind there was blew me towards the land. And thus, having found two or three broken oars belonging to the boat - and, besides the tools which were in the chest, I found two saws, an axe, and a hammer; with this cargo I put to sea. For a mile or thereabouts my raft went very well, only that I found it drive a little distant from the place where I had landed before; by which I perceived that there was some indraft of the water, and consequently I hoped to find some creek or river there, which I might make use of as a port to get to land with my cargo. (Daniel Defoe. Robinson Crusoe)
2. It was Mrs. Poppets that woke me up next morning.
She said: Do you know that it's nearly nine o'clock, sir?"
"Nine o' what?" I cried, starting up.
"Nine o'clock," she replied, through the keyhole. "I thought you was a-oversleeping yourselves."
I woke Harris, and told him. He said: I thought you wanted to get up at six?"
"So I did," I answered; "why didn't you wake me?"
"How could I wake you, when you didn't wake me?" he retorted. "Now we shan't get on the water till after twelve. I wonder you take the trouble to get up at all."
"Um," I replied, "lucky for you that I do. If I hadn't woke you, you'd have lain there for the whole fortnight." (Jerome K. Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
F. Analyze the example of analogy. Find the informational links between the concepts compared that make the analogy possible.
Cruelty has a human heart,
And Jealousy a human face;
Terror the human form divine,
And Secresy the human dress.
***
The human dress is forged iron,
The human form a fiery forge,
The human face a furnace sealed,
The human heart its hungry gorge. (William Blake. A Divine Image)
FINAL TEST
Analyze the abstract from the poem by Lewis Carroll. Find all the premises and conclusions. Define the type of the syllogisms.
THERE are certain things - as, a spider, a ghost,
The income-tax, gout, an umbrella for three -
That I hate, but the thing that I hate the most
Is a thing they call the Sea.
***
Pour some salt water over the floor -
Ugly I'm sure you'll allow it to be:
Suppose it extended a mile or more,
THAT'S very like the Sea.
***
Beat a dog till it howls outright -
Cruel, but all very well for a spree:
Suppose that he did so day and night,
THAT would be like the Sea.
***
I had a vision of nursery-maids;
Tens of thousands passed by me -
All leading children with wooden spades,
And this was by the Sea.
***
Who invented those spades of wood?
Who was it cut them out of the tree?
None, I think, but an idiot could -
Or one that loved the Sea.
***
It is pleasant and dreamy, no doubt, to float
With 'thoughts as boundless, and souls as free':
But, suppose you are very unwell in the boat,
How do you like the Sea?
***
There is an insect that people avoid
(Whence is derived the verb 'to flee').
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Where have you been by it most annoyed?
In lodgings by the Sea.
***
If you like your coffee with sand for dregs,
A decided hint of salt in your tea,
And a fishy taste in the very eggs -
By all means choose the Sea.
***
And if, with these dainties to drink and eat,
You prefer not a vestige of grass or tree,
And a chronic state of wet in your feet,
Then - I recommend the Sea.
(Lewis Carroll. A Sea Dirge)
LAWS AND ARGUMENTATION
. Analyze the abstracts from the novels by Lewis Carroll. Do they violate the Law of Identity or not? Produce your proofs. 1. At last he addressed Bruno. I hope you have had a good night, my child?Bruno looked puzzled. Is had the same night oove had, he replied. Theres only been one night since yesterday!It was Professors turn to look puzzled now. (Lewis Carroll. Sylvie and Bruno)2. Well! And next, what did you get this dagger for? Come, no evasions! You cant deceive me!I got it for for for - the detected Conspirator stammered, trying her best to put on the assassin-expression that she had been practicing at the looking-glass. For -For what, Madam?Well, for eighteenpence, if you must know, dearest! (Lewis Carroll. Sylvie and Bruno)3. Who are you? said the Caterpillar.This was not an encouraging opening for a conversation. Alice replied, rather shyly, I I hardly know, Sir, just at present at least I know who I was when I got up this morning, but I think I must have been changed several times since then.What do you mean by that? said the Caterpillar, sternly. Explain yourself!I cant explain myself, Im afraid, Sir said Alice, because Im not myself, you see. (Lewis Carroll. Alices Adventures in Wonderland) . Analyze the abstracts from the Shakespeares works. Identify the basic laws they illustrate. Consult the text for the contextual background if necessary.Fill in the chart below. Put + in the suitable table cell or - if the law is violated.| Abstract, source | Law of Identity | Law of excluded middle | Law of contradiction | Law of sufficient reason |
| 1.Merchant of Venice | ||||
| 2.Macbeth | ||||
| 3.Hamlet |
[...]
PORTIA. A pound of that same merchant's flesh is thine.The court awards it and the law doth give it.SHYLOCK. Most rightful judge!PORTIA. And you must cut this flesh from off his breast.The law allows it and the court awards it.SHYLOCK. Most learned judge! A sentence! Come, prepare.PORTIA. Tarry a little; there is something else.This bond doth give thee here no jot of blood:The words expressly are 'a pound of flesh.'Take then thy bond, take thou thy pound of flesh;But, in the cutting it, if thou dost shedOne drop of Christian blood, thy lands and goodsAre, by the laws of Venice, confiscateUnto the state of Venice. (William Shakespeare. Merchant of Venice)
2. SECOND APPARITION.
Be bloody, bold, and resolute: laugh to scorn
The power of man, for none of woman born
Shall harm Macbeth. Descends.
[]
MACBETH.
Thou losest labor.
As easy mayst thou the intrenchant air
With thy keen sword impress as make me bleed.
Let fall thy blade on vulnerable crests;
I bear a charmed life, which must not yield
To one of woman born.
MACDUFF.
Despair thy charm,
And let the angel whom thou still hast served
Tell thee, Macduff was from his mother's womb
Untimely ripp'd. (William Shakespeare. Macbeth)
3. OPHELIA.
I shall th' effect of this good lesson keep
As watchman to my heart. But, good my brother,
Do not as some ungracious pastors do,
Show me the steep and thorny way to heaven,
Whiles, like a puff'd and reckless libertine,
Himself the primrose path of dalliance treads
And recks not his own rede. (William Shakespeare. Hamlet)
. Analyze the abstract from the novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Find the example of Law of Identity violation. What meanings of the concept MAKE have led to misunderstanding?
"Pearl," said he, with great solemnity, thou must take heed to instruction, that so, in due season, thou mayest wear in thy bosom the pearl of great price. Canst thou tell me, my child, who made thee?"
Now Pearl knew well enough who made her, for Hester Prynne, the daughter of a pious home, very soon after her talk with the child about her Heavenly Father, had begun to inform her of those truths which the human spirit, at whatever stage of immaturity, imbibes with such eager interest. Pearl, therefore - so large were the attainments of her three years' lifetime - could have borne a fair examination in the New England Primer, or the first column of the Westminster Catechisms, although unacquainted with the outward form of either of those celebrated works.
But that perversity, which all children have more or less of, and of which little Pearl had a tenfold portion, now, at the most inopportune moment, took thorough possession of her, and closed her lips, or impelled her to speak words amiss. After putting her finger in her mouth, with many ungracious refusals to answer good Mr. Wilsons question, the child finally announced that she had not been made at all, but had been plucked by her mother off the bush of wild roses that grew by the prison-door.
This phantasy was probably suggested by the near proximity of the Governor's red roses, as Pearl stood outside of the window, together with her recollection of the prison rose-bush, which she had passed in coming hither.
Old Roger Chillingworth, with a smile on his face, whispered something in the young clergyman's ear. Hester Prynne looked at the man of skill, and even then, with her fate hanging in the balance, was startled to perceive what a change had come over his features - how much uglier they were, how his dark complexion seemed to have grown duskier, and his figure more misshapen - since the days when she had familiarly known him. She met his eyes for an instant, but was immediately constrained to give all her attention to the scene now going forward.
"This is awful!" cried the Governor, slowly recovering from the astonishment into which Pearl's response had thrown him. "Here is a child of three years old, and she cannot tell who made her! Without question, she is equally in the dark as to her soul, its present depravity, and future destiny! Methinks, gentlemen, we need inquire no further." (Nathaniel Hawthorne. The Scarlet Letter)
D. Analyze the abstracts from the novel by Jerome K. Jerome. One of the following basic laws is violated in each of them. State the effect created through the violation and the stylistic means connected with it. Fill in the chart.
| Law | Abstract number | Stylistic means and aims |
| Law of Identity | ||
| Law of Contradiction | ||
| Law of Sufficient Reason |
Abstract 1.
I reminded him that there was concentrated lemonade in the hamper, and a gallon-jar of water in the nose of the boat, and that the two only wanted mixing to make a cool and refreshing beverage.
Then he flew off about lemonade, and "such-like Sunday-school slops," as he termed them, ginger-beer, raspberry syrup, &c., &c. He said they all produced dyspepsia, and ruined body and soul alike, and were the cause of half the crime in England. (Jerome K. Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
Abstract 2.We were all feeling seedy, and we were getting quite nervous about it. Harris said he felt such extraordinary fits of giddiness come over him at times, that he hardly knew what he was doing; and then George said that HE had fits of giddiness too, and hardly knew what HE was doing. With me, it was my liver that was out of order. I knew it was my liver that was out of order, because I had just been reading a patent liver-pill circular, in which were detailed the various symptoms by which a man could tell when his liver was out of order. I had them all. []
I went to my medical man. He is an old chum of mine, and feels my pulse, and looks at my tongue, and talks about the weather, all for nothing, when I fancy I'm ill; so I thought I would do him a good turn by going to him now. "What a doctor wants," I said, "is practice. He shall have me. He will get more practice out of me than out of seventeen hundred of your ordinary, commonplace patients, with only one or two diseases each." So I went straight up and saw him, and he said: "Well, what's the matter with you?"
I said: "I will not take up your time, dear boy, with telling you what the matter with me is. Life is brief, and you might pass away before I had finished. But I will tell you what is NOT the matter with me. I have not got housemaid's knee. Why I have not got housemaid's knee, I cannot tell you; but the fact remains that I have not got it. Everything else, however, I HAVE got."
And I told him how I came to discover it all.
Then he opened me and looked down me, and clutched hold of my wrist, and then he hit me over the chest when I wasn't expecting it - a cowardly thing to do, I call it - and immediately afterwards butted me with the side of his head. After that, he sat down and wrote out a prescription, and folded it up and gave it me, and I put it in my pocket and went out.
I did not open it. I took it to the nearest chemist's, and handed it in.
The man read it, and then handed it back.
He said he didn't keep it.
I said: "You are a chemist?"
He said: "I am a chemist. If I was a co-operative stores and family hotel combined, I might be able to oblige you. Being only a chemist hampers me."
I read the prescription. It ran:
"1 lb. beefsteak, with
1 pt. bitter beer
every 6 hours.
1 ten-mile walk every morning.
1 bed at 11 sharp every night.
And don't stuff up your head with things you don't understand." (Jerome K. Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
Abstract 3.Girls, also, don't look half bad in a boat, if prettily dressed. Nothing is more fetching, to my thinking, than a tasteful boating costume. But a "boating costume," it would be as well if all ladies would understand, ought to be a costume that can be worn in a boat, and not merely under a glass-case. It utterly spoils an excursion if you have folk in the boat who are thinking all the time a good deal more of their dress than of the trip. It was my misfortune once to go for a water picnic with two ladies of this kind. We did have a lively time!
They were both beautifully got up - all lace and silky stuff, and flowers, and ribbons, and dainty shoes, and light gloves. But they were dressed for a photographic studio, not for a river picnic. They were the "boating costumes" of a French fashion-plate. It was ridiculous, fooling about in them anywhere near real earth, air, and water. (Jerome K. Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
E. Look through the descriptions of some argumentation fallacies. Using the theory scheme, find the traditional terms corresponding with the mistakes (based on David Kelley. The Art of Reasoning).
Subjectivism: using the fact that one believes or wants a proposition to be true as evedence of its truth.
Appeal to majority: using the fact that large numbers of people believe the proposition to be true as evidence of its truth.
Appeal to emotion: trying to get someone to accept a propositon on the basis of an emotion one induces.
Appeal to force: trying to get someone to accept a propositon on the basis of a threat.
Appeal to ignorance: using the absence of proof for a proposition as evidence for the truth of the opposing proposition.
Tu quoque: trying to refute an accusation by showing that the speaker is guilty of it.
Poisoning the well: trying to refute a statement or argument by showing that the speaker has a non-rational motive for adopting it.
Begging the question: trying to support a proposition with an argument in which that proposition is a premise.
Post hoc: using the fact that one event preceded another as sufficient evidence for the conclusion that the first caused the second.
Straw man: trying to refute one proposition by arguing against another proposition. (David Kelley. The Art of Reasoning)
F. Identify the fallacy in the argumentation (based on David Kelley. The Art of Reasoning).
The federal government should save New York City from default, for New York deserves such aid.
Student to teacher: How can you give me a C in this course? Ive been getting Bs from all my other teachers. Maybe your grading standards are too high.
I dont see how you can support distribution requirements. Dont you want students to have any choice about their courses?
Six months after President Hoover took office in 1929, the stock market crashed and the Great Depression began. He is therefore responsible for this tragic episode in the national history.
Why are you so skeptical about ESP (Extra Sensory Perception)? Can you prove that it doesnt exist.
Mary says she loves me. I dont know whether to believe her or not, but I guess I do, because I dont think she would lie to someone she loves about something that important.
That was a great movie
Why do you think so?
Well, I just loved it.
Opinion poll question: Do you favor more money for welfare programs or do you feel we should let people starve in the streets?
G. Model the argument with the fallacy named in the brackets. Describe the main features of the fallacy in each of the cases (based on David Kelley. The Art of Reasoning).
Many crimes result from TV violence (appeal to ignorance).
Ill pass this course (subjectivism).
Logic is worth studying (appeal to majority).
Mary saw a ghost (post hoc).
H. Analyze the ways and means of argumentation in the following abstract. Define thesis and arguments, evaluate the conclusions.
Sherlock Holmess quick eye took in my occupation, and he shook his head with a smile as he noticed my questioning glances. Beyond the obvious facts that he has at some time done manual labour, that he takes snuff, that he is a Freemason, that he has been in China, and that he has done a considerable amount of writing lately, I can deduce nothing else.
Mr. Jabez Wilson started up in his chair, with his forefinger upon the paper, but his eyes upon my companion.
How in the name of good fortune, did you know all that, Mr. Holmes? he asked. How did you know, for example, that I did manual labour? Its as true as gospel, and I began as a ships carpenter.
"Your hands, my dear sir. Your right hand is quite a size larger than your left. You have worked with it, and the muscles are more developed."
Well, the snuff, then, and the Freemasonry?
I wont insult your intelligence by telling you how I read that, especially as, rather against the strict rules of your order, you use an arc and compass breastpin.
Ah, of course, I forgot that. But the writing?
What else can be indicated by the right cuff so very shiney for five inches, and the left one with the smooth patch near the elbow where you rest it upon the desk.
Well, but China?
"The fish which you have tattooed immediately above your right wrist could only have been done in China. I have made a small study of tattoo marks, and have even contributed to the literature of the subject. That trick of staining the fishes scales of a delicate pink is quite peculiar to China. When, in addition, I see a Chinese coin hanging from your watch-chain, the matter becomes even more simple. (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes)
I. Define the structure of the argumentations below and the types of the mistakes. Fill in the chart. Name the stylistic reasons for the mistakes.
| Abstract number | Type of Mistake | Stylistic Means and Reasons |
| Abstract 1 | ||
| Abstract 2 | ||
| Abstract 3 | ||
| Abstract 4 |
Abstract 1.
I objected to the sea trip strongly. A sea trip does you good when you are going to have a couple of months of it, but, for a week, it is wicked.
You start on Monday with the idea implanted in your bosom that you are going to enjoy yourself. You wave an airy adieu to the boys on shore, light your biggest pipe, and swagger about the deck as if you were Captain Cook, Sir Francis Drake, and Christopher Columbus all rolled into one. On Tuesday, you wish you hadn't come. On Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, you wish you were dead. On Saturday, you are able to swallow a little beef tea, and to sit up on deck, and answer with a wan, sweet smile when kind-hearted people ask you how you feel now. On Sunday, you begin to walk about again, and take solid food. And on Monday morning, as, with your bag and umbrella in your hand, you stand by the gunwale, waiting to step ashore, you begin to thoroughly like it. (Jerome K. Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
Abstract 2.
"Let's go up the river."
He said we should have fresh air, exercise and quiet; the constant change of scene would occupy our minds (including what there was of Harris's); and the hard work would give us a good appetite, and make us sleep well.
Harris said he didn't think George ought to do anything that would have a tendency to make him sleepier than he always was, as it might be dangerous.
He said he didn't very well understand how George was going to sleep any more than he did now, seeing that there were only twenty-four hours in each day, summer and winter alike; but thought that if he DID sleep any more, he might just as well be dead, and so save his board and lodging. (Jerome K. Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
Abstract 3.
For clothes, George said two suits of flannel would be sufficient, as we could wash them ourselves, in the river, when they got dirty. We asked him if he had ever tried washing flannels in the river, and he replied: "No, not exactly himself like; but he knew some fellows who had, and it was easy enough;" and Harris and I were weak enough to fancy he knew what he was talking about, and that three respectable young men, without position or influence, and with no experience in washing, could really clean their own shirts and trousers in the river Thames with a bit of soap. (Jerome K. Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
Abstract 4.
The river affords a good opportunity for dress. For once in a way, we men are able to show our taste in colours, and I think we come out very natty, if you ask me. I always like a little red in my things - red and black. You know my hair is a sort of golden brown, rather a pretty shade I've been told, and a dark red matches it beautifully; and then I always think a light-blue necktie goes so well with it, and a pair of those Russian-leather shoes and a red silk handkerchief round the waist - a handkerchief looks so much better than a belt. (Jerome K. Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
FINAL TEST
. The British scientist, cellist and polymath Denys Parsons compiled a collection of misprints and absurdities. He invented Gobfrey Shrdlu, the evil genius who causes all the misprints and howlers which plague printers and sub-editors.
Find out the origins the genius's name. What is "ETAOIN SHRDLU? Is it a concept?
Read the misprints and distinguish the paralogisms that make the items funny. Analyze changes in concepts and propositions.
Define whether the syllogisms are correct.
1. If you are willing to pay just a little more and are looking for a really fascinating, Out-of-the-ordinary pet, may we suggest you try the second floor and ask to see our miss Martimore. (Sign in Toronto store, 48)
2. LOST almost all white cat. (Bury Times, 48)
3. Mrs George was married before anesthetics came into use in surgical operations. (Ludlow Tribune, 42)
4. If it had not been for the United States Navy, the World War would have resulted in the real Agamemnon that so many predicted at the time. (U.S. Naval Air Station Bulletin, 38)
5. Students who marry during their course will not be permitted to remain in the college. Further, students who are already married must either live with their husbands or make other arrangements with the dean. (Syllabus of an Ohio College, 8)
6. It has usually been the custom to get some prominent gentleman to take the chair, but on this occasion the selection fell on Councillor Eastland. (Bristol paper, 72)
7. It was agreed that existing counter and writing supervising officers, both men and women, should immediately be liable to rotate on posts which had hitherto been reserved to the other sex. (Post, 54)
8. Please excuse John from school today as fathers ill and the pig has to be fed. (Letter to schoolmaster, 74)
9. Whenever eggs are cheap the fowls yield a fair supply, and when they become dear production stops. (Pall mall Gazette, 90)
10. Catherine had always been lucky. Even the sun was shining when she first saw it. (Everybodys, 122)
B. Analyze the hypothesis, define its structure. Was it proved by Robinson Crusoe?
This set me to study how to order my fire, so as to make it burn some pots. I had no notion of a kiln, such as the potters burn in, or of glazing them with lead, though I had some lead to do it with; but I placed three large pipkins and two or three pots in a pile, one upon another, and placed my firewood all round it, with a great heap of embers under them. I plied the fire with fresh fuel round the outside and upon the top, till I saw the pots in the inside red-hot quite through, and observed that they did not crack at all. When I saw them clear red, I let them stand in that heat about five or six hours, till I found one of them, though it did not crack, did melt or run; for the sand which was mixed with the clay melted by the violence of the heat, and would have run into glass if I had gone on; so I slacked my fire gradually till the pots began to abate of the red colour; and watching them all night, that I might not let the fire abate too fast, in the morning I had three very good (I will not say handsome) pipkins, and two other earthen pots, as hard burnt as could be desired, and one of them perfectly glazed with the running of the sand. (Daniel Defoe. Robinson Crusoe)
FURTHER READING
1. Bayley, John. Good Companions: An Anthology to Inspire, Amuse or Console. London: Abacus, 2002.
2. Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur. The Adentures of Sherlock Holmes. - London: John Murray, 1957.
3. Kelley, David. The Art of Reasoning: Expanded edition (with symbolic logics). New York, London, Norton, cop. 1990.
4. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. London: Vintage, 1997.
5. Parsons, Denys. Funny Ho Ho and Funny Fantastic. London: PAN BOOKS LTD, 1967.
6. .. . ., 2002.
7. . : .: - , 2004.
8. .. . ., 1995.
9. . . .: , 1990.
10. .. . , 1995.
11. / .-. .. . .: , 2005.
12. : / . .. , .. . .,., ., ., ., ., . . . .: , 2001.
13. .. : . 2- ., . . .: , 2002.
14. .. . ., 1996.
15. .., .. . ., 1987.
16. . : . . .. . . . . . .-. ., 1991.
17. .. : . .: , 2000.
18. . : . ., 1993.
19. .. . . , 1990.
20. .. . .: , 1989.
21. .. . ., 1987.
22. , . / . . .: , 1979.
23. .. . . ., 1999.
24. .. . , 1997.
WEB RESOURSES
http://chitalka.info/gumaniratni_nauki.html
http://djvu-student.narod.ru/02-matematicheskaya-logika/metodichka/metoda_matlogika_i_teor_algoritm.html
http://domknig.net/book-4831.html
http://freebooks.net.ua/uchebniki/humanitarni/othera/93-logika-i-argumentacija.html
http://gi.kmpu.edu.ua/index
http://humanus.site3k.net/?/logic/alt/index.html
http://nazva.net
http://psylib.org.ua/books/ivina01/index.htm
http://studentik.net/category/knigi-logika/
http://viem.at.ua/load/10-1-0-56
http://works.tarefer.ru/46/100036/index.html
http://www.gumfak.ru/logika.shtml
http://www.koob.ru/chelpanov/uchebnik_logiki
http://www.lib.ua-ru.net/katalog/1416.html
http://www.libkruz.com/10-90/Logic.html
- http://www.mathacademy.com/pr/prime/articles/carroll/index.asp
- http://www.tnu.in.ua/study/downloads
BASIC NOTIONS
(in English, Ukrainian and Russian)
Formal logic ()
Symbolic logic ()
Propositional logic
Predicative logic
Dialectical logic
Forms of ratio
*******************
Law of contradiction
Law of excluded middle
Law of identity
Law of sufficient reason
Idempotence law
Commutative law
Distributive law
Law of De Morgan
Paralogism
Sophism
Paradox
*******************
CONCEPT
Scope () ()
Content () ()
Law of inverse relation between scope and content of a concept
Generalization
Determination
Set
Subset
Empty set
Universal set
Limited/unlimited set / /
Monic/single concept
Common concept
Abstract concept
Concrete concept
Positive concept
Negative concept
Connected concepts
Comparable concepts
Identity
Subordination ()
Intersection
Collateral subordination
Contrary
Contradiction
Denoting/defining
Wide definition
Narrow definition
Tautology
Classification () ()
Genus
Species
Single principle of classification
Addition
Multiplication
Negation
Difference/diminution
*******************
PROPOSITION
Subject ᒺ
Predicate
Modality
Alethic modality (ᒺ)
Epistemic modality ()
Assertoric proposition
Problematic proposition
Apodeictic proposition
Reliable proposition
Simple proposition
Existential proposition
Attributive proposition
Categorical proposition
Quality of a proposition
Affirmative proposition
Negative proposition
Quantity of a proposition
Singular proposition
Particular proposition
Universal proposition
Quantity operator /
Universal quantifier
Existential quantifier
Logical square
Subordination /
Subordinating proposition
Subordinated proposition
Contrary
Contradiction
Distribution (ᒺ )
Complex proposition
Logic connector
Conjunction
Inclusive disjunction
Exclusive/symmetric disjunction /
Implication
Antecedent () ()
Consequent () ()
Double implication/equivalence ()
Lukasiewicz symbol ( )
Truth table
Validity
Truth
False /
*******************
SYLLOGISM
Premise
Link
Conclusion
Enthymeme
Immediate inference
Conversion
Reducted obversion
Obversion
Contrapositive inference
Mediate inference
Inductive inference
Deductive inference
Categorical syllogism
Minor term
Major term
Middle term
Figure ()
Mode/mood ()
Polysyllogism
Sorites
Hypothetical syllogism - - .
Modus ponens
Modus tollens
Horned syllogism - - .
Dilemma
Complete induction
Incomplete induction
***********************
ARGUMENTATION
Thesis ()
Argument ()
Hypothesis/preliminary proposition
