All the tribesmen became warriors in war-time, but in time of peace they hunted, tamed and bred animals and tilled the soil. A tribe was governed by a council of elders. The council distributed hunting- and fishing-grounds and tillable lands among the family communities and settled all disputes. The elders acted in the interests of the whole tribe. They were obeyed and trusted by all. They called meetings of all the tribesmen to discuss the most important problems.
In the primitive society there was no private property; therefore, there pre no classes and no exploitation - that is, appropriation by the rich of the fruits of other men's labour. Since there were no classes there was no title system that is, no armed forces, no prisons, no courts, no overseers, no government bodies.
In the last centuries B.C. and in the first centuries A.D. the Celts were ill ii period of transition from primitive communal society to class society. The elders, military leaders and their warriors made up the tribal nobility. They were beginning to seize much land for themselves and they had more cattle than the other members of the clan. But still the communal way of life predominated among them.
Exercises Make up sentences with the following synonyms: soil - land soil - land rich - wealthy distribute - divide labour-job - work do - act last - past
problem — question significant — important
№8. Make up sentences with the following antonyms: rich - poor obey - disobey
primitive - complex important - unimportant war - peace live - die trust - distrust alive - dead
GRAMMAR
№ 9. Remember the forms of the verb "to be":
| The verb to be | |||
| Tense | Affirmative | Interrogative | Negative |
| Present Indefinite | I am he (she, it) is we (you, they) are | am I? is he (she, it)? are we (you, they)? | I am not he (she, it) is not we (you, they) are not |
| Past Indefinite | I (he, she, it) was we (you, they) were | was I (he, she, it)? were we (you, they)? | I (he, she, it) was not we (you, they) were not |
| Future Indefinite | I (we)shall be he (she, it, you, they) will be | shall I (we) be? will he (she, it, you, they) be? | I (we) shall not be he (she, it, you, they) will not be |
№ 10. Put the proper form of "to be".
1. Economics (to be) an academic discipline.
2. The economy of France (to be) developed now.
3. "The Wealth of Nations" (to be) published in 1776.
4. Last year my brother (to be) in London.
5. Microeconomics (to be) one of the branches of Economics.
6. Next year these girls (to be) economists.
7. Since that time they (to be) rich and happy.
8. Now the resources in this area (to be) poor.
9. Our teacher (to be) here in a moment.
10. "Doctor, I hope it (to be) nothing serious", Jack asked his doctor.
11. Dr. Lee (to be) a good specialist in many branches of Economics.
12. Miss Likky's father (to be) fifty years old two years ago.
13. "Officer, tell me the way to the nearest post-office. I (to be) in a, hurry", James said.
14. Tomorrow I (to be) present at this conference
№11. Remember the functions of the verb "to be":
| The verb "to be" | |
| Functions | Examples |
| The Notional Verb | He is in New York. We were at the lecture on History. |
| An Auxiliary Verb | I am going to the Institute. He was asked a difficult question on Statistics. |
| A Link- Verb | They are students. The story was very interesting and useful. |
| A Modal Verb (an equivalent for the verb "must") | They are to arrive in time. The train was to come at 5 o'clock. |
№ 12. Translate from English into Ukrainian. State the functions of "to be".
1. The knowledge acquired at our University is very useful for future specialists.
2. They are state clerks and work at some government body.
3. You are to trust your family, і
4. Since that time Mr. Smith was to come to meetings in time.
5. My friends and I are going to hunt this Sunday.
6. He was at the World Trade Conference.
№13. Translate from Ukrainian into English. State the functions of "to be".
1 Це відбувалось (було) у стародавні часи.
2 Ми повинні вивчати проблему зайнятості.
3 Вона збирається працювати у галузі економіки.
4 Вони - студенти Академії.
5 Торгівля - важлива сфера людської діяльності.
6 Це було у другому столітті до нашої ери.
7 Це питання є спірним.
8 П'ять років тому я була у Франції.
Reflexive Pronouns.
| 1 person | 2 person | 3 person |
| Singular | myself | yourself | himself herself itself |
| Plural | ourselves | yourselves | themselves |
№ 14. Read, translate and underline the reflexive pronouns.
1. The President himself made a speech on this problem.
2. In the morning my children always wash themselves with cold water.
3. Wealth itself can't make people happy.
4. On Sunday I dressed myself and went to the theatre.
5. Mary doesn't understand herself.
6. We ourselves work in trade.
7. She made this definition herself.
№ 15. Fill in the gaps with the correct prepositions and particles. Analyse the use of all the articles or their absence in the text. Translate.
