Before treating the patient it is necessary to make a correct diagnosis of the disease and to determine its aetiology, i.e. the causes of the disease. The examining doctor must know well the pathogenesis of any disease, i.e. the way and mechanism of its development, as well as the symptoms revealing it.
A number of different procedures is used to establish a diagnosis: history-taking; physical examination, which includes visual examination, palpation, percussion, auscultation; laboratory studies, consisting of urinalysis, blood, sputum and other analyses; instrumental studies, for example, taking electrocardiograms or cystoscopy, X-ray examination and others.
For determining a disease, it is very important to know its symptoms, i.e. the signs of a disease. They are breathlessness, edema, cough, chill, vomiting, fever, haemorrhage, headache, rash, swelling and others. Some of these symptoms are objective, e.g., haemorrhage or vomiting, because they are determined by objective study, while others, such as headache or dizziness are subjective, since they are evident only to the patient.
The physical examination includes three stages: general examination; local examination; examination of body systems.
On general examination, the patient is examined from head to toes: this helps to estimate the physical and mental state of the patient. The doctor also determines the patients weight and height, observes his facial expression, movements, speech, state of lymphatic nodes, muscles, bones, joints.
On local examination, the doctor examines the patients head, eyes, nose, ears, oral cavity, neck, thyroid gland, etc. to estimate the functional state of particular parts of the body.
Examination of body systems includes the study of the respiratory, endocrine, nervous and other systems. On this stage, the doctor applies the technique of palpation and percussion to determine whether the borders of internal organs are normal or abnormal. By means of auscultation he can reveal rales in the lungs in case of pneumonia or bronchitis, or heart murmurs if a patient suffers from cardio-vascular diseases.
Laboratory analyses are important as well. Blood analysis revealing leukocytosis immediately indicates the presence of inflammation in the body. Urinalyses help to reveal the presence of urinary tract infections such as cystitis, nephritis or pyelonephritis. Analysis of sputum is performed to confirm the diagnosis of tuberculosis.
Instrumental procedures also help to determine health problems. Electrocardiograms are necessary to monitor the heart work. X-ray usually shows the borders and structure of the internal organs, fractures and fissures, accumulation of liquid in the lungs, etc.
So, examination of the patient is a complex procedure helping to timely reveal diseases or dysfunctions of any organs and start their treatment.
Exercise 8. Answer the questions:
1. What is it necessary to know to make a correct diagnosis?
2. What kind of procedures are used to establish a diagnosis?
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3. What groups can symptoms be divided into?
4. What is the difference between the objective and subjective symptoms?
5. What does the scheme of the physical examination include?
6. What is examined during each stage of physical examination?
7. Why are laboratory analyses important?
8. What does X-ray help to reveal?
Exercise 9. Match the English word-combinations with their Ukrainian equivalents:
| 1. history-taking and auscultation | ) |
| 2. to make a diagnosis | b) |
| 3. palpation and percussion | c) |
| 4. X-ray and urinalysis | d) |
| 5. haemorrhage and rash | e) |
| 6. fractures and fissures | f) |
| 7. signs and symptoms | g) |
| 8. dizziness and cough | h) |
Exercise 10. Match the symptoms with their explanations:
| 1. haemorrhage 2. cough 3. headache 4. rash 5. fever 6. vomiting 7. chill 8. edema | a) small red spots on the skin b) removal of the contents of the stomach c) feeling of coldness during high fever d) pain in the head e) profuse bleeding from injured blood vessels f) accumulation of fluid under the skin or in the body cavities g) high body temperature h) reflex which helps to remove foreign substances and microbes from the airways |
| 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | 7. | 8. |
Exercise 11. Guess what disease is described:
Model: inflammation of the lungs is pneumonia.
1. inflammation of the kidneys
2. inflammation of the lungs
3. inflammation of the urinary bladder
4. inflammation of bronchi
5. inflammation of the eye conjunctiva
6. pus accumulation around the kidneys
7. lesion in the stomach
8.infection caused by Mycobacteria
Exercise 12. Translate the words in italics:
1. usually appear in case of .
2. Increased leukocytosis indicates .
3. If a patient suffers from - , he may have .
4. helps the presence of urinary tract infections such as .
5. On general examination the doctor observes the patients , , , , , .
6. The local examination includes the examination of the patients , , , , , , .
7. is carried out by means of , , .
8. Examination of the patient is a that helps diseases.
Exercise 13. Fill in with the necessary information from the text:
1. The cause of the disease is known a _________________________________________________.
2. The physical examination includes the following procedures _____________________________.
3. The pathogenesis is known as _____________________________________________________.
4. The instrumental studies may include _______________________________________________.
5. The laboratory studies consist of ___________________________________________________.
6. To make a diagnosis the doctor should make the following procedures _____________________.
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7. Three stages of physical examination are: ____________________________________________.
8. The signs of a disease is known as __________________________________________________.
Exercise 14. Complete the table:
| Physical examination | Laboratory examination | Instrumental examination |
Exercise 15. Fill in the sentences with the words from the box:
| urinalyses, history-taking, subjective, X-ray, palpation, laboratory, symptom, objective |
1. Typical sings that can characterize particular disease are called ______________________.
2. Blood tests and sputum analyses are performed during _________________ examination.
3. Haemorrhage, rash, cough are ________________ symptom.
4. Breathlessness, dizziness are _________________ symptom.
5. The fracture of bones can be revealed by ___________________.
6. _____________________ is the first step in patients examination.
7. ________________ is performed to determine to boarders of internal organs.
8. The doctors usually administer _________________ to reveal urinary tract infections.
Exercise 16. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense form. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian:
1. The cause of the disease (to call) aetiology.
2. Yesterday the students (to learn) the pathogenesis of pneumonia.
3. Tomorrow I (to take) the ECG to monitor my heart work.
4. If blood analysis (to reveal) leukocytosis, the patient (to administer) antibiotics.
5. The medical examination (to carry) out twice a year, as a rule.
6. The stomach troubles of the patient (to determine) by vomiting.
7. In a week, students (to observe) the professor examine his patients.
8. Good day light (to allow) to estimate the colour of the patients skin, conjunctiva, oral cavity.
Exercise 17. Put questions to the underlined words:
1. To make a diagnosis the doctor needs the findings of blood analysis.
2. Any disease is usually revealed by its symptoms.
3. The patient was administered uninalysis to confirm cystitis.
4. Objective symptoms include haemorhage, vomiting, cough, etc.
5. She felt dizziness and nausea after taking these pills.
6. Physical examination is the first objective stage in examination of a patient.
7. By means of auscultation the examiner can reveal rales in the lungs heart murmurs.
8. The diagnosis of TB will be confirmed after analysis of sputum.
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| . : . : What is it necessary to know to make a correct diagnosis? What kind of procedures are used to establish a diagnosis? What is the difference between the objective and subjective symptoms? Why are laboratory analyses important? What does X-ray help to reveal? . : |
| At the Pharmacy |
Exercise 1. Topic vocabulary:
| ambiguity, n | [ˏæmbɪ'gjuːɪtɪ] | , |
| consequence, n | [ˈkɔnsikwəns] | , |
| contraindication, n | [ˏkɔntrəɪndɪ'keɪʃ(ə)n] | |
| dangerous, adj | [ˈdeinʤərəs] | |
| dispense, v | [di'spens] | () |
| drastic, adj | [ˈdræstik] | |
| expiry date, n | [ik'spaiəri 'deit] | 䳿 |
| label, v | ['leibl] | , |
| over-the-counter, adj. | [ˏəʋvəðə'kauntə] | |
| poisonous, adj. | ['pɔizənəs] | |
| prescription, n | [priˈskripʃən] | |
| prevent, v | [pri'vent] | |
| private, adj. | ['praivit] | |
| psychotropic, adj. | [saikouˈtroupik] | |
| supply with, v | [sə'plai] | , |
| warnings, n, pl. | ['wɔːnɪŋz] | |
| unfavourable | [ʌn'feivərəbl] |
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Exercise 2. Read correctly:
ps [s]: psychotropic, psychiatry, psychology, psychosis, psychiatrist, psychologist, psychic;
ph [f]: pharmacy, philosophy, pharmacology, physician, pharmaceutist, physics, photo, phytotea;
y [ai]: supply, apply, rely, July, good-bye, type, rye;
au [ɔ:]: cause, trauma, autopsy, auscultation, autonomy, nausea, August.
Exercise 3. Form nouns and verbs with the help of the prefix over- and translate them into Ukrainian:
Model: dosage overdosage ( )
age, balance, breathing, capacity, control, growth, strain, weight, to estimate, to grow, to protect, to rate, to charge, to populate, to supply, to come, to drink, to eat.
Exercise 4. Put the words into the appropriate column. Use dictionary if necessary:
muscles, hepatitis, antipyretics, thyroid gland, nausea, analgesics, headache, joints, pneumonia, emetics, pyelonephritis, skin, cough, hypnotics, gastric ulcer, edema, heart, breathlessness, appendicitis, laxatives, rales, sedatives, tuberculosis, suppositories, rash, antibiotics, bones, pain-killers, cystitis, lungs, antiemetics
| Human body | Diseases | Symptoms | Medicines |
Exercise 5. Read and translate the following word-combinations into Ukrainian:
an institution of health service, to supply with medicines, a wide variety of medical products, municipal and private pharmacies, a chemist's department, a dispensing area, over-the-counter drugs, things for medical care and medical herbs, narcotic and psychotropic drugs, to sell by prescription only, date of dispensing, expiry date, directions to the patient, to write out a prescription, to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding, to require up to two years of Latin.
Exercise 6. Read and translate the text:
At the Pharmacy
Pharmacy is an institution of health service. It supplies the population with medicines and medical things. It is a place where a wide variety of medical products are sold and prescription can be made; drugs are dispensed and stored. There are different types of pharmacies: municipal, public, private. Each pharmacy has a chemist's department where a consumer can buy over-the-counter drugs and a dispensing area where drugs are sold by prescription only. All medicines are kept in drug cabinets, open shelves and refrigerators at a pharmacy.
At the pharmacy, a person can buy different medicines such as antipyretics, antibiotics, emetics and anti-emetics, laxatives, sedatives, anti-inflammatory drugs, etc. that are sold in the form of tablets, capsules, drops or dragees. However, poisonous, drastic, narcotic and psychotropic drugs are sold by prescription only at the dispensing area. As they are potent, they can be dangerous if taken in an overdose. Therefore, their use is strictly controlled.
There is also a wide variety of things for medical care sold at the pharmacy: adhesive plasters, cotton wadding, gauze, disposable syringes, inhalers, enemas, hot water bottles, thermometers, tonometers, etc. Besides, a person can find medical herbs, vitamin and mineral supplements, various kinds of phytotea at the pharmacy.
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Every small bottle, a tube or a box of medicine has a label on it. White labels indicate drugs for internal use, yellow ones indicate drugs for external use and blue ones indicate drugs used for injections. The dose to be taken and the directions for the administration are also indicated on a label. Besides, all containers of dispensed medicines have the following particulars: name of the patient, name of the medicine, correct dosage instructions, date of dispensing, expiry date, warnings or contraindications, name and address of the pharmacy. It prevents confusing different remedies, some of which are poisonous. Their overdosage may cause unfavourable reactions and sometimes even death.
To buy potent drugs it is necessary to receive a special medical document from the doctor, i.e. prescription. As a rule, prescriptions are written out in Latin abbreviations in continental Europe. The only exception is the signature section which contains directions to the patients. Thats why European medical schools require up to two years of Latin as part of the curriculum for medical doctors and pharmacists.
In Great Britain all prescriptions are written out in the English language only. The English dont use any Latin abbreviations to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding which may lead to serious consequences. If they do use any Latin abbreviations they are quite wide-spread and easy to read (such as p.o., a.m., p.m., p.c., o.d., nocte and so on).
Exercise 7. Answer the questions:
1. What is a chemist's shop?
2. What departments are there at every pharmacy?
3. What can a person buy at the chemists department?
4. What can a person buy at the dispensing area?
5. Where are all the drugs kept at the pharmacy?
6. Why are some drugs sold by prescription only?
7. What are the necessary particulars on the label?
8. What language are the prescriptions written out in GB? Why?
Exercise 8. Match the terms with their explanations:
| 1. a pharmacy 2. a pharmacist 3. a medicine 4. a prescription 5. an overdosage 6. a label 7. a drug cabinet 8. an expiry date | a) a case of taking drugs in excessive amount b) a special time when a medicine can no longer be used c) a small piece of paper which contains the information about the drug d) pills or tablets used for treatment of diseases e) a person who is qualified to compose and dispense drugs f) a storage place for drugs and remedies inside a chemists g) a medical facility where one can buy drugs and things for medical care h) a doctor's written instruction for the composition and use of a drug |
| 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | 7. | 8. |
Exercise 9. Find the English equivalents to the following word-combinations in the text:
; , ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; 䳿; ; ; , .
Exercise 10. Join the Latin abbreviations with their English equivalents and translate them. Use the dictionary:
| 1. p.c. 2. q.d.s. 3. s.c. 4. s.l. 5. p.o. 6. c.c. 7. p.r.n. 8. i.v. 9. infusⁿ | a) by mouth b) sublingual c) with meals d) as required e) after food f) intravenous g) four times a day h) infusion i) subcutaneous |
Exercise 11. Insert the preposition where necessary:
1. You can find this drug the pharmacy over there.
2. The prescription is written in Latin.
3. Overdosage causes serious consequences.
4. I was a sick-leave twice last year.
5. I keep all the medicines a small drug cabinet.
6. This procedure consists listening the patients heart and lungs.
7. Depending the weather, well either go the polyclinic or call a doctor.
8. World Health Organisation supplies people the information about epidemics.
Exercise 12. a) Open the brackets using the verbs in the appropriate form. Translate the text into Ukrainian:
The structure of a complete prescription (to include) six essential parts: the patient's name, the superscription, the inscription, the subscription, the signature and the prescriber's name.
The superscription (to be) the traditional symbol Rx. It always (to appear) at the beginning of the prescription. Rx (to represent) the contraction of the Latin verb "recipe" which (to mean) to take. In Continental Europe they (to use) the symbol Rp. It (to be) the analogus of the English Rx.
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Then (to come) the inscription. It (to be) the body of the prescription. This section (to contain) the ingredients and their quantities, necessary to make a medicine.
The subscription always (to follow) the inscription and (to contain) the writer's instructions to the pharmacist.
The signature (to consist) of the directions for the patient. The pharmacist (to place) this information the label of the container in which the medication is dispensed.
The prescriber's name (to be) the part of the prescription that (to guarantee) its authenticity.
b) Place the parts of the prescription in the correct order and read it. Name each part:
1. For pain, one pill four times a day by mouth
2. Dr Thomas Hood
3. Rx
4. Sevredol, sixty x twenty-milligramme tablets
5. two packages
6. Patient Robert Smith
Exercise 13. Replace the words in bold type with their equivalents from the texts above:
1. Any medicine should be taken according to the prescription.
2. A pharmacy provides people with medicines.
3. The body of the prescription includes the ingredients of a drug.
4. The drugs are kept in drug cabinets.
5. An excessive intake of drugs leads to bad results.
6. Toxic drugs are sold by prescription only.
7. Some additional effects appear when taking these pills.
8. To escape double meaning the British dont use Latin abbreviations.
Exercise 14. Change sentences from Active into Passive:
Model:
The doctor will examine you in a minute. You will be examined by the doctor in a minute.
1. A. Fleming discovered penicillin by chance.
2. The surgeon operated on the patient successfully.
3. Students study basic theoretical subjects in the first term.
4. Scientists introduced new methods of treatment of cancer.
5. The district doctor will prescribe you the proper treatment.
6. The doctor made a correct diagnosis after the physical examination.
7. The doctor will discharge the patient from the hospital in two days.
8. The nurse on duty usually takes the patients to different procedures.
Exercise 15. Put questions to the underlined words:
1. Latin is the language of prescriptions.
2. There are two departments at any pharmacy.
3. The use of potent drugs is strictly controlled.
4. The physician prescribed him mild laxatives.
5. A chemists supplies population with medicines.
6. In Britain prescriptions are written out in English only.
7. They will take into consideration all the doctors administration.
8. The pharmacist instructed the patient about the medications side effects.
Exercise 16. Describe the notion pharmacy using the following table:
| 1. The type of establishment. | |
| 2. What it supplies people with. | |
| 3. Structural units. | |
| 4. Peculiarities of prescription in different European countries. |
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| I. : 䳿 II. : What kinds of pharmacies are there? What can a person buy at the chemists department? What drugs are sold by prescription only? Where are all the drugs kept at the chemist's? What does the complete prescription consist of? III. : |
| Human Body |
Exercise 1. Topic vocabulary:
| breathe, v | [briːð] | |||
| buttocks, n | ['bʌtəks] | c | ||
| chest, n | [[iː'sɔfəgəs] | c | ||
| comprise, v | [kəm'praɪz] | |||
| cornea, n | [ˈkɔːnɪə] | |||
| cover, v | ['kʌvə] | |||
| eyebrow, n | ['aɪbrau] | |||
| eyelash, n | ['aɪlæʃ] | |||
| forehead, n | ['fɔrɪd ], ['fɔːhed] | |||
| gallbladder, n | [gɔ:l'blædə] | |||
| heart, n | [ha:t] | |||
| injury, n | ['indʒəri] | |||
| intestine, n | [in'testin] | |||
| kidney, n | ['kɪdnɪ] | |||
| limb, n | [lim] | |||
| palate, n | ['pælət] | |||
| skull, n | [skʌl] | |||
| stomach, n | ['stʌmək] | |||
| thumb, n | [θʌm] | () | ||
| tongue, n | [tʌŋ] | |||
| trunk, n | [trʌŋk] | |||
| protect, v | [prə'tekt] | |||
| support, v | [sə'pɔ:t] | |||
| wrist, n | [rɪst] |
Exercise 2. Divide the words into two columns nouns and adjectives. Translate them into your native language:
Example: heart (n) cardiac (adj), neck (n) cervical (adj).
Facial, spinal, pelvis, lung, basic, neck, anatomical, buccal, palate, extremity, skull, nasal, surface, cranial, cheek, cervical, renal, tongue, pulmonary, liver, trunk, lingual, mouth, cardiac, oral, kidney, palatine, hepatic, tongue, pelvic.
Exercise 3. Read the following word combinations and translate them into Ukrainian:
Injury: occupational injury, sports injury, intentional injury, soft tissue injury, brain injury, the cause of injury. He escaped from the accident without injury.
To breathe: to breathe in, to breathe out, to breathe easily/freely, to breathe ones last, a natural fabric that breathes.Give me a moment to breathe. Don't breathe a word of this.
Surface: outer surface, interior surface, facial surface, buccal surface, masticatory surface, lingual surface, superficial.
Extremity: upper extremity, lower extremity, complex extremity trauma. it is important to keep the extremities warm. Extremity angiography is a test used to see the arteries in the hands, arms, feet or legs.
Exercise 4. Read and translate the text:
Human body
The human body refers to the entire structure of a human being.
The principal parts of the human body are the head, the trunk, and limbs (extremities).
The head consists of 2 parts: the skull contains the brain and the face including the forehead, the eyes, nose, the mouth, the cheeks, the ears and the chin.
Each eye has the eyelids and the eyelashes that grow along the edge of the eyelids. There are the eyebrows over our eyes. The eyes serve as the organ of sight. The eye consists of the cornea, crystalline lens, and pupil.
The nose is the organ of smell through which we breathe.
The ear includes 3 principal parts: the external ear, the middle ear and the internal ear. The ear is responsible for hearing and balance.
The mouth has 2 lips: the upper and the lower lip. The tongue which is the organ of taste, teeth and hard and soft palates are located in the mouth.
The head is connected with the trunk by the neck.
The upper part of the trunk is the chest. The principal organs in the chest are the lungs, the heart and the esophagus (gullet).
The lower part of the trunk called abdomen consists of the stomach, the liver, the spleen, the intestines, the kidneys, the gallbladder and the bladder.
The surface of the body from the neck to the buttocks is called the back.
The waist is the narrow middle part of the body above the hips.
When we speak of the upper extremity we mean the arm. The upper extremity connected with the chest by the shoulder consists of the upper arm, the forearm, the elbow, the wrist and the hand. We have 5 fingers on each hand which allow grasp the objects. A short finger set apart from the other is called the thumb. Each finger, starting with the one closest to the thumb, has a colloquial name to distinguish it from the others: index finger (pointer finger, forefinger), middle finger (long finger), ring finger and little finger (pinky finger, small finger, baby finger). Fingers contain some of the densest areas of nerve endings on the body, are the richest source of tactile feedback, thus the sense of touch is intimately associated with hands.
The lower extremity called the leg consists of the hip (thigh), the knee, the calf, the ankle and the foot. The foot is composed of the toes, the heel, the sole and the arch. The nail is a hard part at the end of a toe and finger.
The framework of bones called the skeleton supports the soft parts and protects the organs from injury. The bones are covered with muscles.
The body is covered with the skin.
Exercise 5. Translate the following words and word combinations into English:
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .
Exercise 6. Answer the following questions:
1. What are the principal parts of the human body?
2. What does the face include?
3. What is the organ of taste?
4. Where do eyelashes grow?
5. What does the eye consist of?
6. What do we breathe through?
7. What organ is responsible for hearing and balance?
8. What are the principal organs in the chest?
9. What organs does the abdomen consist of?
10. What does the upper/lower extremity consist of?
11. What part of the body is responsible for sense of touch?
12. What supports the soft parts and protects the organs from injury?
Exercise 7. Fill in the gaps with the proper words:
1. The bones are covered with.
2. When we speak of the upper extremity we mean .
3. The is the narrow middle part of the body above the hips.
4. The upper part of the trunk is the .
5. The head is connected with the by the neck.
6. The is the organ of taste.
7. The mouth has 2 : the upper and the lower .
8. The nose is the organ of through which we breathe.
Exercise 8. Complete the sentences:
1. The skull contains....
2. The face consists of....
3. The ear consists of....
4. The head is connected with the trunk by....
5. The chest contains....
6. The abdomen contains....
7. The part of the body from the shoulder to the wrist is called....
8. The framework of bones is called....
9. The upper extremity consists of....
10. The lower extremity consists of....
Exercise 9. Match the following parts of the body with the jumbled definitions on the right:
| Kidney Lung Liver Heart Brain Stomach Intestine Throat | a) a long pipe leading from the stomach which takes waste matter from the body; b) sac-like organ in which food is broken down; c) organ in the head which controls thought and feeling; d) one of the paired organs which separate waste liquid from the blood; e) large organ which cleans the blood; f) passage from the back of the mouth down inside the neck; g) one of a pair of breathing organs in the chest; h) organ in the chest controlling the flow of blood by pushing it round the body. |
Exercise 10. Put the questions to the underlined parts of the sentences:
1. Some strange spots have covered both his palms and feet.
2. His tongue was dry and white.
3. The upper extremity is connected with the chest by the shoulder.
4. Eyelashes protect the eye from entering of foreign bodies.
5. All human beings have five fingers on each hand.
6. Each toe consists of three phalanx bones.
7. The skin covered by your nail is called a nail bed.
8. During the last winter, doctors have noted a great number of broken ankles.
Exercise 11. Open the brackets using the verbs in the corret form and translate the sentences into Ukrainian:
1. The womans heart (to be) slightly enlarged.
2. Wrist pain with bruising and swelling can (to be) a sign of injury.
3. Breastfeeding (to lower) the baby's risk of having asthma or allergies.
4. Indigestion and heartburn (to be) the most common stomach problems.
5. Dislocation (to occur) when the bones of the knee are out of place, either completely or partially.
6. The Achilles tendon (to connect) the calf muscle with the heel bone.
7. In this female a severe heart disease (to follow) by dyspnea.
8. He (hurt) his back playing tennis.
Exercise 12. Fill in the gaps, using the given words:
trunk, extremities, to contain, to consist, gums (), palate (), abdomen (), upper arm (), forearm (), hand.
In the practical Anatomy class we study the human body. The principal parts of the human body are the , the trunk, the extremities. We have upper extremities () and of the lower extremities ().
The head consists of two parts: the skull and the face. The skull contains and the face consists of the , the , the , the , the , the and the .
The mouth has two lips. In the mouth cavity there are gums, a and a palate. The head is connected with the trunk by . The upper part of the trunk is the and the lower part is the abdomen. The principle organs in the chest are the , the and the . We breathe with the lungs and the heart makes beats.
The principal organs of the abdominal cavity are the , the , the , the , the , the and the .
The upper extremity is connected with the chest by the .. The upper extremity consists of the upper arm, the elbow, the forearm, the wrist and the hand. We have four and a on each hand. The lower extremity consists of the , the , the , the and the . The skin covers the body.
Exercise 13. Answer the questions to the text from ex. 11:
1. What do the students study in the Anatomy class?
2. What are the principal parts of the body?
3. What parts does the head consist of?
4. What is there in the mouth?
5. What are the principal organs of the chest?
6. What are the principal organs of the abdominal cavity?
