The notion of translation
Translation as a term and notion is of polysemantic (having multiple meanings) nature.
Its common and most general meaning:
TRANSLATION is the action or process of rendering/expressing the meaning/content of a source language word, word-group, sentence or passage (larger text) in the target language or with the result of the process/action of rendering.
- a source language - the language a source is translated from in translation;
- a target language - the language a source is translated into.
Translation also refers to the Romanization or latinization which is the conversion of writing from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so.
Methods of romanization include:
1) transliteration (for representing written text)
2) transcription (for representing the spoken word, and combinations of both).
The term interpretation is synonymous to translation and is used to denote the way or manner of representing the idea of the work in translation orally (as well as its aesthetic, religious, political, pragmatic background and other qualitative characteristics of the work under translation). These may be artistic, genre and stylistic peculiarities rendered by the translator in his particular way, which is somewhat different from that of the author's.
Interpretation, unlike translation, admits some more freedom for the translator in his treatment (at least in certain places or cases) of the matter under translation.
The activity of translation has a long-standing tradition, has been widely practiced throughout history and the profession of a translator/interpreter is one of the oldest.
English and Ukrainian are two different languages. English is analytical, when Ukrainian is synthetic. Thus, there are differences at lexical, grammatical levels, which should be taken into consideration by the translators.
Two approaches to translation
There are 2 approaches as to how to translate.
1 nothing should be changed.
It mostly concerns the translation of religious works. There existed the idea that religious works had been created by the God, so no one has a right to change something in the holy writing. The supporters of the approach thought of Latin as of a holy language.
2 allowed certain freedom.
The ideas (but not the words) are to be reproduced by means of another language. This approach now developed into what is known as literal/faithful translation (, ) which is used to denote the highest degree of rendering the denotative or connotative meanings of words, the sense of word-groups and sentences, the content, the expressiveness, picturesqueness and the pragmatic subtext of passages or works of the source language with the help of the available means of the target language).
The main principles of faithful translation
1. Hold strictly to the authors conception and render faithfully the content of the source language work.
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2. Maintain in the target language version all the structural peculiarities and syntactic organization of the matter under translation.
3. Preserve the main stylistic means including the artistic images and expressiveness of the original work.
4. Avoid deliberate omissions, enlargements or embellishment and any other forms of free interpretation of the source work.
5. Render in the target language version the pragmatic intention of the author and his force of influence on the reader.
Translators competence
What is the translators need to know and be able to do in order to translate?
[ Bell (1991) argues that the professional translator has access to five distinct kinds of knowledge:
- target language (TL) knowledge;
- text-type knowledge;
- source language (SL) knowledge;
- subject area (real world) knowledge;
- and contrastive knowledge.
1. Target language skills
- be able to communicate accurately, appropriately and concisely;
- have a broad, expressive vocabulary and excellent, in-depth knowledge of the grammatical nuances and rules of your target language;
- be experienced in reading the sort of text you wish to create, in both your source and target language;
- be able to spot a translation that is too literal and feel confident in selecting a less-literal, more-free translation that better suits the norms of the target language and field;
- personal preferences should not dominate over what is more usual;
How to improve
- spend time in a target country to get (re)acquainted with modern usage and refresh your knowledge;
- refer to language and style guides (these are especially helpful for addressing common grammatical errors);
- read newspapers and journals in your target language;
- read texts appropriate to your specialism in your target language;
-consider further education in your specialist area, translation and writing skills so you can ensure an appropriate writing style for the texts you translate;
-get into the habit of checking yourself on any term you are not 100% sure of.
2. Source language skills
- be able to understand the majority of texts without the aid of a dictionary, to the standard of an educated native-speaker.
- be able to understand concepts as well as any native.
- use a dictionary and other resources to find the precise words to express the concepts, terms and ideas in the target language, but also remember that such tools are there to assist only.
- the degree is preferable but it is not a guarantee of success;
- in addition to the pure linguistic skills, be familiar with how the language is currently used, together with commonly used slang, dialect, and new words borrowed from other languages.
How to improve:
- spend time in the source country;
- purchase and refer to language guides;
- read newspapers and journals in the source language;
- read texts appropriate to your specialism in the source language;
- take language courses and obtain qualifications.
[ Other professionals also agree that other important things for a translator nowadays are: specialization, computer skills, education, resources.
1. Specialisation
Specialisation is incredibly important in translation. Nobody can be an expert in everything, but as a translator, you are expected to be an expert in translating each individual text you translate. If the texts are on related topics, you will have less vocabulary to learn each time.
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A good translator chooses a specialisation relevant to him appropriate to the academic training, professional experience and/or hobbies and interests (obviously, all three is a brilliant combination!)
The other matter to consider is how many fields to specialise in. General discussions with other translators seem to suggest anywhere between one to four.
How to improve
- choose a specialism relevant to your academic, professional and other related experience, as well as your hobbies and interests;
- consider the time and research texts in your specialism will require, and charge accordingly;
- keep your total number of specialisms to a manageable minimum one to four;
- keep up-to-date on the latest developments and terminology through various media in both your source and target languages.
2. Computer skills
Basic computer skills are a must in this job.
A translator spends all day at a computer and, if freelance, will need to be capable of learning how to meet and overcome new challenges and problems on a regular basis.
The software we work with and documents we receive, as well as the computers we work on, are not always problem-free, so being able to solve the majority of problems yourself is a huge advantage. If your basic office or computer management skills are lacking, it may be worth asking someone to teach you or taking a course.
Typing speed is also very significant.
Online research skills are incredibly valuable.
3. Education
- A good level of education is another huge advantage, and for most agencies and many direct clients, a must. A Bachelors degree in your specialist field, translation or your source language are particularly helpful, whilst any degree helps to develop and illustrate a standard of research skills, commitment and writing skills in your native language.
- A Masters degree is also not uncommon among translators either specifically in translation, a related field, or a chosen specialism.
- Professional translation qualifications (Masters in Translation Studies or DipTrans) can also be a big help, although qualified membership status in the ATA, ITI or IOL is probably the more valuable side to this and you may be eligible for this without taking a full Masters or DipTrans (e.g. ITI accepts a degree PLUS a membership exam).
- Ongoing education is also useful and can be found in evening classes, online courses, one-off events, day-seminars, short courses and summer schools.
4. Resources
A good translator also has access to the best resources to assist them in their work so a stable, fast internet connection is vital, as well as general and specialist bilingual and monolingual dictionaries, style guides, computer software and hardware.
Kinds of translating
Different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominant communicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in the translation process.
Thus we can distinguish between:
1) literary and informative translation;
2) written and oral translation (or interpretation).
Literary and informative translation
| 1. Literary translation | 2. Informative translation |
| deals with literary texts, i.e. works of fiction or poetry whose main function is to make an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the translators primary task is to reproduce this quality in translation. | is rendering into the target language non-literary texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. |
!!!! However, if the source text is of some length, its translation can be listed as literary or informative only as an approximation. A literary text may include some parts of purely informative character and visa versa.
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1. Literary translation
Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres. → Literary translations may be subdivided in the same way, as each genre calls for a specific arrangement and makes use of specific artistic means to impress the reader.
Translators of prose, poetry or plays have their own problems.
Each of these forms of literary activities comprises a number of subgenres and the translator may specialize in one or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience. The great challenge to the translator is to combine the maximum equivalence and the high literary merit.
The translator of a belles lettres text is expected to make a careful study of
the literary trend the text belongs to,
the other works of the same author,
the peculiarities of his individual style and manner and so on.
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This involves both linguistic considerations and skill in literary criticism. A good literary translator must be a versatile scholar and a talented writer or poet.
2. Informative translation
A number of subdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations, though the principles of classification here are somewhat different.
→ Here we may single out translations of
scientific and technical texts;
newspaper materials;
official papers;
public speeches;
political and propaganda materials;
advertisements, etc.,
which are, so to speak, intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the expressive and referential functions, between reasoning and emotional appeal.
In technical translation the main goal is to identify the situation described in the original.
The predominance of the referential function is a great challenge to the translator who must have a good command of the technical terms and a sufficient understanding of the subject matter to be able to give an adequate description of the situation even if this is not fully achieved in the original. The technical translator is also expected to observe the stylistic requirements of scientific and technical materials to make text acceptable to the specialist.
Some types of texts can be identified not so much by their positive distinctive features as by the difference in their functional characteristics in the two languages. English newspaper reports differ greatly from their Ukrainian counterparts due to the frequent use of colloquial, slang and vulgar elements, various paraphrases, eyecatching headlines, etc.
Apart from technical and newspaper materials it may be expedient to single out translation of official diplomatic papers as a separate type of informative translation. These texts make a category of their own because of the specific requirements to the quality of their translations. Such translations are often accepted as authentic official texts on apar with the originals. They are important documents every word of which must be carefully chosen as a matter of principle. That makes the translator very particular about every little meaningful element of the original which he scrupulously reproduces in his translation.
Journalistic (or publicistic) texts dealing with social or political matters are sometimes singled out among other informative materials because they may feature elements more commonly used in literary text (metaphors, similes and other stylistic devices) which cannot but influence the translators strategy. More often, however, they are regarded as a kind of newspaper materials (periodicals).
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!!!! There are also some minor groups of texts that can be considered separately because of the specific problems their translation poses to the translator. They are film scripts, comic strips, commercial advertisements and the like.
Since the text of translation will deal with quite a different kind of people than the original advertisement was meant for, there is the problem of achieving the same pragmatic effect by introducing the necessary changes in the message.
5.2. Written and oral translation (or interpretation)
| In written translation | In oral translation or interpretation | Intermediate types (modifications of the two main types of translation) |
| the source text is in written form, as is the target text. | the interpreter listens to the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral message in TL. | The interpreter rendering his translation by word of mouth may have the text of the original in front of him and translate it at sight. A written translation can be made of the original recorded on the magnetic tape that can be replayed as many times as is necessary for the translator to grasp the original meaning. |
| the receptor of the translation can read it | the receptor of the translation hears it |
In written translation the original can be read and reread as many times as the translator may need or like. The same goes for the final product. The translator can reread his translation, compare it to the original, make the necessary corrections or start his work all over again. He can come back to the preceding part of the original or get the information he needs.
The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translators performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a onetime act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes; to be content with a lower level of equivalence.
There are two main kinds of oral translation consecutive and simultaneous.
In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreters strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter is expected to translate a long speech which has lasted for
scores of minutes or even longer. In this case he has to remember a great number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having been suggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in, such notation is the integral part of the interpreters training as are special exercises to develop his memory.
In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or telephone type equipment. The interpreter receives the original speech through his earphones and simultaneously talks into the microphone which transmits his translation to the listeners. This type of translation involves a number of psycholinguistic problems, both of theoretical and practical nature.
