1. I was already an old person _____ I stopped acting in that way.
2. Would you mind not questioning Pauline _______ you have studied the journal?
3. They had known each other for only three months ______ he left Brisbane.
4. She was a trifle unbalanced, perhaps even suicidal at the time. _______, she had attacked and beaten a complete stranger.
5. took a pencil out of his jacket and fumbled around _______ he found an old envelope.
6. He'll have to wait ______ we've finished here.
7. Floods have ruined the roads and communications. ________, they washed away the crops.
8. At this rate we'll capsize ________ we get to Rocky Isle.
9. _______ she had time to say a word, Andrew appeared.
10. She had put the phone down _______ he could press her for an answer.
11. He could authorize nothing _______ he had spoken to the new minister.
12. People always interrupted him ________ he had finished what he was trying to say.
13. Read the document carefully ________ you sign it.
14. They have recently identified the species of moth. ________ they enthusiastically expressed quite contradictory views.
15. He says he has never been in contact with him. ________, however, he claimed they were friends.
Exercise 3. Choose the correct linking word. Explain your choice.
1. It was crazy that Dad was home simultaneously/ while his wife was working.
2. She had just crept out while/meanwhile he slept.
3. Someone else fetches the horse whilst/in the meantime the owner is at work.
4. She grinned to herself as/simultaneously she lay awake in the dormitory.
5. As/while he looked at the coin, his whole expression changed.
6. The telephone began to ring as/in the meantime he unlocked the door.
7. "Did you get my letters?" "I received one just as/meanwhile I was setting out."
8. I'll never forget those soldiers as long as/whilst I live.
9. I will be back with them as soon as I can," he promised. "Whilst/in the meantime, try to get some rest."
10. The government will manage the company until it can be dismantled or sold. Meanwhile/ In the meantime, its 28 offices will remain open.
11. Elizabeth dried her hair and changed her clothes. As long as/ Meanwhile I fiddled with the tape recorder.
12. Saute the onion and celery in a small frying pan. Simultaneously/ Meanwhile melt the margarine in a saucepan.
13. At that moment a vivid bolt of lightning flashed across the cove. While/ Simultaneously a deafening crack split the air.
14. The program uses so little of the computer's processing power that it is possible to do other things as long as/ at the same time.
Exercise 4. Transform the following time clauses into impersonal ones.
Example: When they were making records in the 1920s, sound engineers often made two recordings for safety's sake à When making records in the 1920s, sound engineers often made two recordings for safety's sake.
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1. Whenthey werelifting weights off the floor, bend your knees and keep your back straightand long.
2. After it had been colonized by Spain, Haiti was ceded to France in 1697.
3. It was certainly the best meal I had had since I left home.
4. The people will report to you before they make any major decisions.
5. The 65-year-old accepted his judgement until he heard a radio broadcast in 1988 about a similar case.
6. Wedecided to maximize our return on each product while we hoped our superiorquality would win out.
7. Water is liquid, but when it is heated it becomes vapour and when it is frozen it issolid.
8. A man is guilty until he is proved i nnocent.
9. Grillfor 15 to 20 minutes, turning occasionally until it is cooked.
10. On the other hand, once you have seen this apartment, who'd have the courage to complain?
11. The full figures, when they are available, will show imports remaining at a highlevel.
12. Weavoided one another, whenever it was possible.
13. Greenwood continued to talk daily with Fennymore while he was in Florida.
14. Once she was inside her apartment she felt an urge to brush her teeth.
15. Cover and put in a cool place until it is ready to serve.
Exercise 5. Translate into English.
1. , .
2. , .
3. , .
4. .
5. , .
6. , .
7. , .
8. . .
9. , .
10. , .
11. , .
CONDITION
Exercise 1. IF vs. UNLESS? Which sentences can be rewritten with if or unless and which must stay as they are?
Example: Ill be surprised if he doesnt have an accident soon. (cannot be rewritten)
1. Unless it's in the form of insurance, the guarantee could well be worthless.
2. It will be better if we dont tell her anything.
3. You can have the car tonight if Harriet doesnt need it.
4. It would have been comic unless it had been so frustrating
5. Im going to dig the garden this afternoon if it doesnt rain.
6. Shed look nicer if she didnt wear so much make-up.
7. You had to be nice to him if you wanted to get on. Nobody could use the computer unless they knew the password.
8. Ill tell you if I cant come.
9. I wouldn't have enough to live on if the operation wasn't a success.
10. If the body had not been on the path it would have been ignored.
Exercise 2 Choose the appropriate linker.
1. only took her to the hospital on condition that/ if she did not say who had done this.
2. A pilot will only be hired if/ in the event that he signs a statement to say that he will accept no orders from the passenger.
3. They can go into journalism for all I care as long as/ on condition that they're happy.
4. I reluctantly agreed to a postponement in case/on condition that the sale should be completed and the boat handed over by 31st August.
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5. She'd only be happy if/ in the event of she got a thousand miles away.
6. My kind of magic works only if/ unless you keep on believing.
7. I could cook you some dinner so long as/ in the event that it's scrambled eggs. (i.e. Scrambled eggs is the only dish I am able or willing to cook for you.)
8. In the event of/ provided a foreign war or domestic agitation, what would be the resisting power of our institutions?
9. A life assurance scheme is one where, in return for a monthly payment over a specified period, you are guaranteed a sizeable payout in the event of/ as long as your death.
10. Being on patrol was the only excuse I could think of in the event of/ providing my being caught at the farmhouse.
11. We shall give you assistance in the event that/ on condition that you suffer illness, personal injury or death during the period of your holiday overseas.
12. Provided that/ when both birds are healthy I cannot see why a mating should not produce healthy chicks.
13. You will probably find this the most pleasant week of the diet provided/ only if you dont experience a reaction to it.
14. I believe in freedom to do what I wish, providing that/ in the event that it does no harm to my neighbour.
15. Mother will believe me providing/ unless I tell her what she wants to hear.
Exercise 3. Insert assuming (that), given that, considering (that). Comment on your choice.
1. _______ the event had happened such a short time before, a surprising amount of information had already been collected. These devices were very sophisticated considering they were homemade.
2. These two basic factors must continue to apply in the future, _______ the country remains peaceful and politically stable.
3. _______ no decision is ever 100 percent right, it's how we feel about our decisions that counts.
4. _______ I convince you, you can convince Waddington in turn.
5. I don't see what I can do for you, _______you have no evidence.
6. _______ they are such an important part of undergraduate courses, lectures are often presented in a remarkably poor manner.
Exercise 4. Translate into English:
1. , , .
2. , .
3. , , .
4. , , , .
5. , , , , .
6. , .
7. , .
8. , , , .
9. . , .
10. , . , .
CAUSE, EFFECT
Exercise 1. Cause and Effect prepositions with verbs.
A: Translate the sentences into English paying special attention to the prepositions.
1. .
2. , !
3. . (groan)
4. .
5. .
6. , .
7. .
8. .
9. .
10. 1919, .
11. .
12. .
B: Fill the gaps with the following prepositions or prepositional phrases: through, thanks to, out of, from, on account of, by.
1. She suffered _________heart disease.
2. We succeeded _______ sheer hard work.
3. I think I should like to taste a piece of octopus, just _________ curiosity.
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4. He felt that she was silent _________embarrassment.
5. How many days were lost ________sickness?
6. Nickel prices have rocketed, ________a record output of stainless steel.
7. ________her sheer nervousness she said a few more stupid things.
8. The explorers died ______cold before they reached the North Pole.
9. _______John we arrived 3 hours late.
10. I came to you _______desperation youve got to help me.
11. ________him I was introduced to some high-up people.
12. He did it _____a sense of duty.
13. You didnt really want that last cake, you only took it ________spite.
14. Hundreds of working days have been lost this year ________illness.
15. _________ your carelessness, those important documents have been lost.
16. I came ____interest.
17. All our water was boiled _________there being a danger of typhoid fever.
18. You had a narrow escape ________your good luck.
19. The Community Association collapsed _________lack of support.
20. Why did you do it? Was it ___________what I said yesterday?
21. _______spite, Sylvia passed on the story of the affair to the newspapers.
22. We had to move to London __________my job.
23. He died in prison _________pneumonia.
24. _________him I began to learn to trust my feelings.
25. My eyes hurt _________the wind.
26. Not all the artists problems can be solved _________funding.
27. The company has had a successful year, ______ mainly __ the improvement in export sales.
28. We dont get great pleasure _________it.
29. Youre in trouble ______me already.
30. She put salt into her tea _____mistake.
Exercise 2.
A: Fill the gaps with the verbs: bring about, cause, lead to and give rise to. There are options.
1. There will be a reward for any information .the arrest of the robbers.
2. Education is the only method of .. changes in world population.
3. Heavy traffic.. long delays on the roads.
4. The Presidents absence from the dinner..speculation about his health.
5. It was a medical error that ..the death of the patient.
6. The autopsy showed that her death was .. liver failure.
7. Try to isolate the problems that are ..you the most difficulty.
8. The President will support any efforts.. a cease-fire.
9. These chemicals may contaminate the water supply and .cancer.
10. Two things are world-wide concern mass unemployment and poverty of underdeveloped countries.
11. I believe that these large wage increases have most of our economic problems.
Exercise 3. Make out a proper linking device and consider the ways of translating the sentences into Russian.
A:
1. Now she understood his failure to add two and two and make the obvious four; it was _______ Simon doctoring the facts.
2. Any feeling of insecurity in the reader's mind concerning this dual interpretation of formula is not so much _______ the perversity of the author but is rather due to the dual role that the public at large expects him to play.
3. By the mid-1920s the universal result of the earlier shortage of equipment had become clear: 75 per cent of all cases of letting out land were _______ lack of adequate tools.
4. This may well have been _______ the satisfaction he had been deriving from the composition of East Coker.
5. As a port Manchester has less trade now ______ the use of larger ships and the change to trade eastwards with the EEC.
6. In 1972, _______ a technical error, MIKE OLDFIELD appeared on the NME cover six weeks in a row.
7. If, ______ unforeseen circumstances, you are unable to attend the perfor-mance booked, do let us know and we will do our best to resell your tickets.
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8. But his persecutors were frustrated when they had to release him a week later, partly ______ a technical fault in the warrant for his arrest and partly _______ the influence of his friend, Sir M. Hale.
B:
1. Further changes _______ the war were introduced during May 1940: homework and Saturday morning school were cancelled, and Games were held on Friday afternoons.
2. By 15 September two Cornish reservoirs and one in Devon were also closed to the public ________ blue-green algae.
3. The above entertainment came off on Friday 15th but _________ the inclemency of the weather the audience was very small.
4. ________ national budgetary complications arising from Czechoslovakia's split into two nations on 1 January, 1993, this long awaited tax law could be delayed by up to six months.
5. A big loss was suffered on the course in 1975 when 40 elm trees were felled at a cost of £1,400 ________ Dutch Elm Disease.
6. __________ the noise a drill makes, ear protection is necessary.
C:
1. At thirty-five, Leon Gusev had reached colonel's rank ________ his excellent work with agitators in the Baltic Republics.
2. James Howe attended the village school in Skirling but left still young and incompletely educated _________ his deafness.
3. At this period relations between Persia and Britain were worsening _________ Afghanistan.
4. Runnymede offered a most appropriate site for such a memorial ________ its historical associations and its closeness to London and Heathrow.
5. In certain quarters the members of the club were known as `the Black Shorts' ________ their surfing costumes.
D:
1. The former First Deputy Prime Minister claimed that he had not opposed Ceausescu ________ being dismissed.
2. Even now shes frightened to be seen on television __________ reprisals.
3. Reserve officials have also been covering up the scale of the problem ________ being accused of failing in their duties.
4. The common mistake is that people are afraid to pull too hard ________ breaking something
5. They are heavily fortified __________ terrorist attack.
6. At this stage, more girls drop out ___________ retributions.
E:
1. It led to a dialogue with Montefiore, with my telling him about my friend who has had AIDS now for six years and who, _________ AZT, is still alive.
2. Most of it happened _________ tireless negotiations with opera houses, TV crews and recording componies in the west.
3. They discovered how useful honey was in treatment of wounds and it was _________ peoples participation that the best way of applying it to particular kinds of wounds were developed
4. The complex life of the wild gladiolus is a little nearer to being understood________ the efforts of Jon Stokes, a botanist.
5. Hundreds of children enjoyed a sunny day out by the sea yesterday, _________ the kindness of 300 drivers who gave their time to transport the youngsters.
6. All that activity helped the youngsters work up an appetite, which was satisfied __________ food and sweets provided by McDonalds.
Exercise 4. BECAUSE OF vs. AS A RESULT OF. Underline the one that sounds more logically and grammarwise correct.
1. The home team scored in the last minute as a result of/because of an error by the opposing goalkeeper.
2. I was made redundant as a result of/because of company reorganisation.
3. Because of/As a result of the opposing teams superior attacking skills, we worked out a clever defensive plan.
4. Sea-level may rise as a result of/because of global warming.
5. Governments may take measures to limit CO2 emissions because of/as a result of the dangers of global warming.
6. I get depressed as a result of/because of all the unhappiness in the world.
7. We are getting a 10 per cent pay rise because of/as a result of the recent wage agreement.
8. As a result of/because of eating well, she soon regained her strength.
9. As a result of/because of the excellent food at the hotel she booked a holiday there for the following year.
10. Why did you decide to leave the company? Because of/As a result of new management policies which I totally disagreed with.
11. Joe met his wife as a result of/because of an advertisement he inserted in a newspaper.
Exercise 5. SINCE / BECAUSE / AS. Underline the best answers and explain your choice. Sometimes both forms are possible.
1. John, as/because you speak French, I wondered if I could ask you some words?
2. We have a surprise for you because/as you have helped us so often, and for so many years wed like to give you a present.
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3. Since/as everyone is here, we can begin the meeting.
4. Because/since we were young and inexperienced, we made a lot of mistakes.
5. Please allow Johnny to leave school fifteen minutes early, as/because he has a dentists appointment.
6. I will tell you why she lost her job! She was dismissed since/because she was lazy and inefficient!
7. Why do you love me? I love you as/because you understand me.
8. I failed in the exam precisely as/because I didnt have time to study.
9. I asked the question Who will pay? merely as/because we have received no financial details at all.
10. Following our letter of the 16th April, since/because we have not heard from you, we assume that you have no objections to the proposal that was made to you.
11. Some people believe that Mozart died because/since he was poisoned.
Exercise 6. THUS vs. AND THUS. Link the messages below so that it makes sense.
1. The government intends to reduce taxes / it wants to increase its popularity.
2. There had been riots in the streets / the army decided to take control.
3. The police fired tear gas / they managed to disperse the protesters.
4. The government has announced a programme of reform / it will improve social benefits for the poor.
5. The health minister claimed that great progress has been made / 240 new hospitals have been built.
6. The opposition parties voted against the proposal / they meant to prevent it from becoming law.
7. The new minister, Mrs. Durass, is energetic / she will probably adopt new policies.
8. Underground Railroad was one of the greatest forces which brought on the Civil War / it destroyed slavery.
9. The President is very unpopular / his resignation didnt come as a surprise.
10. Our souls are immortal because they are not made of matter / they are indestructible.
Exercise 8. HENCE vs. CONSEQUENTLY. Rewrite the sentences so that they sound more formal.
1. Several teachers are ill, so the school will be closed until further notice.
2. The ship suffered damage in a storm, so it had to go into port for repairs.
3. There is no evidence of damage to the door, so the thieves must have entered the building through the window.
4. Over 90 per cent of out patients improved after taking the drug, so the drug can be regarded as an effective treatment for the disease.
5. The temperature in Saudi Arabia can reach 50 degrees Celsius, so a lot of business is done early in the day.
6. The soldiers in the Pacifican Army were poorly paid; so morale was extremely low.
7. Calcium hydroxide is an alkali, so it reacts with acids to form a salt plus water.
8. The bank refused to help the company, so it went bankrupt.
9. There is no defect in the fuel system of the car, so the fault appears to lie with the electrical system.
Exercise 9. Choose and underline the best answer in the sentences below.
1. Poachers shoot elephants for their ivory. Consequently/Because the number of elephants is decreasing.
2. John copies the answers from his brother and hence/thus achieves good marks.
3. Ill be out all day so/hence Ill leave your lunch in the oven.
4. Mr. Cox is ill and will therefore/since be unable to lecture today.
5. There is no record of his transaction on our files. As/Thus, there is no proof that the transaction ever took place.
6. Temperatures are likely to fall as/consequently cold weather is moving in from the north.
7. Lisa is getting married: so/hence the ring on her finger.
8. The costs of producing the magazine have risen steadily. We are therefore/hence raising the subscription to twenty dollars for four issues.
9. Benjamin Roe has ambitions to become the worlds leading newspaper proprietor: hence/consequently his purchase of the New York Globe.
10. Since/Hence the three sides of the triangle are equal in length, each of the angles must also be equal.
Exercise 10. CAUSE and EFFECT. Complete the newspaper report and the letter below.
A. (report in the Pudston Gazette)
Residents of Pudston are angry ________ 1 the local council are planning to close Pudston library. The decision to close has been taken 2 financial savings can be made.
3 Pudston library is the least used of all the libraries in the region, this was the obvious target, said Council Chairman Bloggs. But Pudston people say this is unfair, 4 the lack of use is 5 limited opening hours. Its true that we dont use the library much, said one, but thats just 6 its never open at times people can go there. Its only open on Thursday mornings for two hours, _7 how can people use it?
B. (letter to the editor of the Pudston Gazette)
Dear Sir,
It is time for Pudstonians to unite so that our voices may be heard. ______ 8 everyone in Pudston knows the importance of the library service, I urge all readers to protest to Chairman Bloggs. Our library is in danger just 9 we have kept silent for too long. Now is the time to act. Mr. Bloggs is due to visit Pudston next week. 10 he is giving a speech at Pudston school, let us all gather outside and tell him what we think of his plans.
Exercise 11. A: Join the ideas below a) to imply that the listener already knows the reason; b) to draw the listeners attention to the cause of the action; c) to focus on the consequence of the action or deductive reasoning when possible.
1. Liz and Colin are having a party / they have got engaged.
2. This is the tourist season / accommodation may be expensive.
3. She wanted to read Dante in the original language / she learnt Italian.
4. I am not going to the disco / I dont like disco music.
5. You know what is in the letter / I wont read it to you.
6. Business is booming at the Savemart / the owners plan to open another branch further downtown.
7. I wasnt present when the accident happened / you cant blame me.
8. Meg is really angry / she hasnt been invited to the wedding.
9. Jim had won 50 pounds in a lottery / he bought drinks for everybody.
10. I was hungry / I ate a sandwich.
11. Everybody says Woody Allens latest film is good / I think Ill go and see it.
12. The departure was approaching / All of us were very excited.
13. The excitement will be great / Nobody will be able to sleep.
14. Mr. Crosby liked Morocco very much when he first went there / He wants to go back.
15. This new album of Sting sounds exciting / We are thinking of buying it.
16. My wife coughed a lot last night / Shes thinking of giving up smoking.
17. When I read The Lord of the Rings I found it extremely well written / I decided I would read it again one day.
B: Compare your opinions about the ideas below with those of other people in the group and be prepared to justify them, giving reasons.
1. The institution of marriage inevitably causes frustration in relationships.
2. Most of the problems of adolescents are due to the influence of parents.
3. The increase of crime is a direct result of insufficiently severe punishment.
4. The enormous amount of money now invested in popular sports is responsible for the erosion of traditional sporting ethics.
5. Unemployment, and consequently despair about the future, is the main reason why young people turn to drugs.
PURPOSE
Exercise 1. Find out if the infinitive clauses in the sentences below are clauses of purpose; and replace to by so as to or in order to where possible:
1. The Minister continued to address his audience.
2 The Minister stopped to address the bystanders.
3 I wanted to ask him a question.
4 I waited to ask him a question.
5 She passed all that morning in automatic acts, picking up a novel only to lay it down.
6 He invited me to keep me happy.
7 He invited me to come to his office.
8 He left us to catch his plane.
9 He left us to go our own way.
10 He encouraged us to win our support.
11 He encouraged us to visit him again.
12 He came to see that they had already gone.
Exercise 2. Complete the following purpose clauses with a suitable linking expression.Note that some sentences can be made without using any connector.
1. A stranger in the crowd had hoisted Phillip up on the shoulder ______ he might see the procession depart.
2. A cockscrew is a tool _____ opening bottles.
3. She caught his eye and they looked away from each other _______ not to laugh.
4. She left the door unlocked _______ him to get in later.
5. Governments need to create employment ______ both parents and children feel that they are part of society and can contribute towards it.
6. He dyed his beard ______ avoid being recognized.
7. Recently, many people have changed their names ______ to make a statement about their ethnic identity.
8. Any holes and openings should be fenced ______ people cant fall down them.
9. There were no carpets _______ not to attract dust.
10. The superintendent was busy stationing his men round the house ______ the ever-increasing spectators shouldnt get too close.
11. The desks are kept some distance apart _______ to prevent cheating.
12. I dont let him climb trees ______ he tears his trousers.
13. He wrote his diary in code ______ prevent his wife from reading it.
Exercise 3. Make sentences, linking the openings on the left with the conclusions on the right. Use the linking expressions in the middle (each expression once only). Note that some sentences can be made without using any linking expression.
| 1. New investment has been made 2. She needs a lot of practice 3. Being late, she took a taxi 4. All lights should be turned off 5. Audio-visual equipment is often used 6. She never walked through the park 7. She decided to move to London 8. Shell be at the airport 9. Take your passport 10. She goes to work by bus | -- -- to avoid in order to for in case so as for fear that in order that so that | a) she might meet him again. b) language learning. c) to meet the new tourist group. d) using the car. e) to improve her Spanish. f) she could be near her child. g) not to lose time. h) roads can be improved. i) to save energy. j) they ask for identification. |
Exercise 4.
