From the history of cars
1. The first self-propelled vehicle was constructed by the French military engineer Cugnot in 1763. He built a steam-driven engine which had 3 wheels, carried two passengers and ran at maximum speed of four miles. The supply of steam lasted only 15 minutes and the carriage had to stop every 100 yards to make more steam.
2. In 1825 a steam engine was built in Great Britain and the vehicle carried 18 passengers and covered 8 miles in 45 minutes. However, the progress of motor cars met with great opposition in Great Britain. In 1865 the Red Flag Act was published according to which the speed of steam-driven vehicles was limited to 4 miles per hour and a man with a red flag had to walk in front of it.
3. In Russia there were cities where motor cars were outlawed altogether. When the editor of the local newspaper in the city of Uralsk bought a car, the governor issued these instructions to the police: When the vehicle appears in the street, it is to be stopped and escorted to the police station, where its driver is to be arrested.
4. From 1860 to 1900 was a period of the application of gasoline engines to motor cars in many countries. The first to perfect gasoline engine was N. Otto who introduced the four-stroke cycle of operation. By that time motor cars got a standard shape and appearance. In 1896 a procession of motor cars took place from London to Brighton to show how reliable the new vehicles were. In fact, many of the cars had been broken, because the transmission wasnt reliable and constantly gave troubles. The cars of that time were small, two-seated cars with no roof, driven by an engine placed under the seat. Motorists had to carry large cans of fuel and separate spare tyres, because there were no repair or filling stations to serve them.
5. After World War I it became possible to achieve greater reliability of motor cars, brakes became more efficient. Constant efforts were made to standardize common components. Multi-cylinder engines came into use, most commonly used are 4 cylinder engines.
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TEXT 1 Types of Buildings
Types of buildings depend upon social functions and may be classified according to the role in the community. The types of buildings may be domestic, educational, office, industrial, recreational, etc. The common and necessary conditions are: its suitability to use by human beings in general and its adaptability to particular human activities; the stability and permanence of its construction.
Speaking of residential construction we must say that the apartment houses are mostly built to suit urban conditions. Group housing provides home for many families and is at once public and private. The techniques of construction or the methods by which structures are formed from particular materials are influenced not only by the availability and character of materials but also by the total technological development of society.
The evolution of techniques is conditioned by two factors: one is economicthe search for a maximum of stability and durability in building with a minimum of materials, labour and time: the other is expressivethe desire to produce meaningful form.
Large housing programs have tended to stimulate technological change in the building industry. Modular design has led to standardization of elements, interchangeability of parts and increased possibilities for mass production, with resultant economies. Entire apartment assemblages are available and are being used to an increasing extent. These techniques aim at a higher output of better structures at lower cost.
The high degree of mechanization and standardization is successfully achieved by reinforced concrete blocks and units. Reinforced concrete homes are produced by a variety of construction methods. Various methods of constructing reinforced concrete houses involve extensive use of large sections manufactured in heavily mechanized factories and erected at the site.
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